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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1.1 PHILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING
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1.2 SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE
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Why Philosophy

CHAPTER 1

2 CHAPTER 1 8IZ�1IJMPTPQIZ

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1.1 PHILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING

!e title of this text, Living Philosophy, is meant to suggest two themes: first, that
philosophy, after two-and-one-half millennia, is still alive and relevant and influen-
tial; and second, that philosophy is not only for studying but also for living—that is,
for guiding our lives toward what’s true and real. Philosophy, even with its ancient
lineage and seemingly remote concerns, applies to your life and your times and your
world. Philosophy achieves this immediacy by being many good things at once: it is
enlightening, thought provoking, life changing, liberating, theoretical, and practical.
!e world is full of students and teachers who can attest to these claims. More impor-
tantly, you will find proof of them in the remainder of this text—and in the writings
of the great philosophers, in your e”ort to understand what they say and the reasons
they give for saying it, and in your honest attempts to apply philosophy to your life.

Philosophy is the name that philosophers have given to both a discipline and a
process. As a discipline, philosophy is one of the humanities. It is a field of study
out of which several other fields have evolved—physics, biology, political science,
and many others. As a process, philosophy is a penetrating mode of reflection for
understanding life’s most important truths. !is mode is called the philosophical
method—the systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamen-
tal questions about reality, morality, and knowledge. !e method, however, is not a
master key used exclusively by professional philosophers to unlock mysteries hidden
from common folk. !e philosophical method is the birthright of every person, for
we are all born with the capacity to reason, to question, to discover. For thousands
of years, great minds like Aristotle, Plato, Confucius, Descartes, Aquinas, and Sartre
have used it in their search for wisdom, and what they found has changed countless
lives. But amateur philosophers like you have also used it—and continue to use it—to
achieve life-altering understanding that would have eluded them otherwise.

The Good of Philosophy
Philosophy is not just about ideas; it’s about fundamental ideas, those upon which
other ideas depend. A fundamental belief logically supports other beliefs, and the more
beliefs it supports the more fundamental it is. Your belief or disbelief in God, for ex-
ample, might support a host of other beliefs about morality, life after death, heaven,
hell, free will, science, evolution, prayer, abortion, miracles, homosexuality, and more.
!anks to your upbringing, your culture, your peers, and other influences, you already
have a head full of fundamental beliefs, some of them true, some false. Whether true
or false, they constitute the framework of your whole belief system, and, as such, they
help you make sense of a wide range of important issues in life—issues concerning
what exists and what doesn’t, what actions are right or wrong (or neither), and what
kinds of things we can know and not know. Fundamental beliefs, therefore, make up
your “philosophy of life,” which informs your thinking and guides your actions.

Perhaps now you can better appreciate philosophy’s greatest practical benefit: it
gives us the intellectual wherewithal to improve our lives by improving our philoso-
phy of life. A faulty philosophy of life—that is, one that comprises a great many false
fundamental beliefs—can lead to a misspent or misdirected life, a life less meaningful

“Science gives us
knowledge, but only
philosophy can give us
wisdom.”

—Will Durant

philosophical method
!e systematic use of
critical reasoning to
try to find answers to
fundamental questions
about reality, morality,
and knowledge.

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“Philosophy should be
responsive to human
experience and yet critical
of the defective thinking
it sometimes encounters.”

—Martha Nussbaum

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than it could be. Philosophy is the most powerful instrument we have for
evaluating the worth of our fundamental beliefs and for changing them
for the better. !rough philosophy we exert control over the trajectory
of our lives, making major course corrections by reason and reflection.

!e Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 BCE), one of Western
civilization’s great intellectual heroes, says, “!e unexamined life is not
worth living.” To examine your life is to scrutinize the core ideas that
shape it, and the deepest form of scrutiny is exercised through phi-
losophy. !is search for answers goes to the heart of the traditional
conception of philosophy as a search for wisdom (the term philosophy
is derived from Greek words meaning “love of wisdom”). With the
attainment of wisdom, we come to understand the true nature of real-
ity and how to apply that understanding to living a good life.

Philosophy’s chief theoretical benefit is the same one that most other
fields of inquiry pursue: understanding for its own sake. Even if philos-
ophy had no practical applications at all, it would still hold great value
for us. We want to know how the world works, what truths it hides, just
for the sake of knowing. And philosophy obliges. Astronomers search
the sky, physicists study subatomic particles, and archeologists hunt
for ancient ruins, all the while knowing that what they find may have
no practical implications at all. We humans wonder, and that’s often
all the reason we need to search for answers. As the great philosopher
Aristotle says, “For it is owing to their wonder that people both now
begin and at first began to philosophize.”

For many people, the quest for understanding through philosophy is
a spiritual, transformative endeavor, an ennobling pursuit of truths at the
core of life. !us several philosophers speak of philosophy as something
that enriches or nurtures the soul or mind. Socrates, speaking to the jurors
who condemned him for practicing philosophy on the streets of Athens,
asks, “Are you not ashamed that, while you take care to acquire as much
wealth as possible, with honor and glory as well, yet you take no care or
thought for understanding or truth, or for the best possible state of your
soul?” In a similar vein, the Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BCE)
says, “Let no young man delay the study of philosophy, and let no old
man become weary of it; for it is never too early nor too late to care for
the well-being of the soul.” And in our own era, the philosopher Walter
Kaufmann (1921–1980) declares, “Philosophy means liberation from the
two dimensions of routine, soaring above the well-known, seeing it in
new perspectives, arousing wonder and the wish to fly.”

Along with philosophical inquiry comes freedom. We begin our
lives at a particular place and time, steeped in the ideas and values of a particular cul-
ture, fed ready-made beliefs that may or may not be true and that we may never think
to question. If you passively accept such beliefs, then those beliefs are not really yours.
If they are not really yours, and you let them guide your choices and actions, then
they—not you—are in charge of your life. You thus forfeit your personal freedom.

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But philosophy helps us rise above this predicament, to transcend the narrow and
obstructed standpoint from which we may view everything. It helps us sift our hand-
me-down beliefs in the light of reason, look beyond the prejudices that blind us, and
see what’s real and true. By using the philosophical method, we may learn that some
of our beliefs are on solid ground and some are not. In either case, through philoso-
phy our beliefs become truly and authentically our own.

Philosophical Terrain
Philosophy’s sphere of interest is vast, encompassing fundamental beliefs drawn
from many places. Philosophical questions can arise anywhere. Part of the reason
for this is that ordinary beliefs that seem to have no connection with philosophy
can become philosophical in short order. A physiologist may want to know how
our brains work, but she ventures into the philosophical arena when she wonders
whether the brain is the same thing as the mind—a question that science alone
cannot answer. A lawyer studies how the death penalty is administered in Texas, but
he does philosophy when he considers whether capital punishment is ever morally

“Philosophy is the highest
music.”

—Plato

“To teach how to live
without certainty and yet
without being paralyzed
by hesitation is perhaps
the chief thing that phi-
losophy, in our age, can
do for those who study it.”

—Bertrand Russell

Your Philosophical Beliefs
Where do you stand on the fundamental issues in philosophy? Here is your chance to take
inventory of your views. After you finish this course, take the survey again. You may be
surprised at how your perspective has changed or become more nuanced. Answer with these
numbers: 5 = true; 4 = probably true; 3 = neither probable nor improbable; 2 = probably
false; 1 = false.

1. !e God of traditional Western religions (an all-knowing, all-powerful, all-good deity)
exists.

2. !is God does not exist.
3. !e apparent design of the universe shows that it had an intelligent designer.
4. !e theory of evolution is a better explanation of the apparent design of biological life

than the theory of “intelligent design.”
5. Right actions are those commanded by God; wrong actions are those forbidden

by God.
6. God does not make actions right or wrong by commanding them to be so.
7. At least some moral norms or principles are objectively true or valid for everyone.
8. Moral standards are relative to what individuals or cultures believe.
9. Mind and body consist of two fundamentally di”erent kinds of stu”—nonphysical

stu” and physical stu”.
10. !e mind, or soul, can exist without the body.

DETAILS

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permissible. A medical scientist wants to know how a human fetus develops, but she
finds it di#cult to avoid the philosophical query of what the moral status of the fetus
is. An astrophysicist studies the Big Bang, the cataclysmic explosion thought to have
brought the universe into being—but then asks whether the Big Bang shows that
God caused the universe to exist. On CNN you see the horrors of war and famine,
but then you find yourself grappling with whether they can be squared with the exis-
tence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God. Or you wonder what your
moral obligations are to the poor and hungry of the world. Or you ponder whether
government should help people in need or leave them to fend for themselves.

We can divide philosophy’s subject matter into four main divisions, each of
which is a branch of inquiry in its own right with many subcategories. Here’s a brief
rundown of these divisions and a sampling of the kinds of questions that each asks.

Metaphysics is the study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the
elemental nature of the universe and the things in it. !ough it must take into
account the findings of science, metaphysics generally focuses on basic questions
that science alone cannot address. Questions of interest: Does the world consist only

metaphysics !e study
of reality.

11. Our mental states are nothing but brain states (mind states are identical to brain
states).

12. No one has free will.
13. Persons have free will (some of our actions are free).
14. Although our actions are determined, they can still be free (free will and determinism

are not in conflict).
15. We can know some things about the external world.
16. We cannot know anything about the external world.
17. Truth about something depends on what a person or culture believes.
18. Libertarianism is the correct political theory.
19. Welfare liberalism is the correct political theory.
20. Meaning in life comes from outside ourselves, from God or some other transcendent

reality.
21. Meaning in life comes from within ourselves.

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6 CHAPTER 1 8IZ�1IJMPTPQIZ

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Main Divisions of Philosophy
DIVISION QUESTIONS

Metaphysics Does the world consist only of matter, or is it made up of other basic
things, such as ideas or mind? Is there a spiritual, ideal realm that
exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the
body? How are mind and body related? Do people have immortal
souls? Do humans have free will, or are they determined by forces
beyond their control? Can they be both free and determined? Does
God exist? How can both a good God and evil exist simultane-
ously? What is the nature of causality? Can an e”ect ever precede
its cause? What is the nature of time? Is time travel possible?

Epistemology What is knowledge? What is truth? Is knowledge possible—can we
ever know anything? Does knowledge require certainty? What are
the sources of knowledge? Is experience a source of knowledge? Is
mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain knowledge of the empiri-
cal world through reason alone? If we have knowledge, how much
do we have? When are we justified in saying that we know some-
thing? Do we have good reasons to believe that the world exists
independently of our minds? Or do our minds constitute reality?

Axiology What makes an action right (or wrong)? What things are intrinsi-
cally good? What is the good life? What gives life meaning? What
makes someone good (or bad)? What moral principles should guide
our actions and choices? Which is the best moral theory? Is killing
ever morally permissible? If so, why? Are moral standards objective
or subjective? Is an action right merely because a culture endorses
it? Does morality depend on God? What makes a society just?

Logic What are the rules for drawing correct inferences? What is the
nature and structure of deductive arguments? How can proposi-
tional or predicate logic be used to evaluate arguments? Upon
what logical principles does reasoning depend? Does logic describe
how the world is—or just how our minds work? Can conclusions
reached through inductive logic be rationally justified?

DETAILS

of matter, or is it made up of other basic things, such as ideas or mind? Is there a
spiritual, ideal realm that exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same
thing as the body? Are the theories of science true, or are they just convenient fic-
tions? How are mind and body related? Do people have immortal souls? Do humans
have free will, or are they determined by forces beyond their control? Can they be
both free and determined? Does God exist? How can both a good God and evil exist

“And what, Socrates,
is the food of the soul?
Surely, I said, knowledge
is the food of the soul.”

4PDSBUFT�BOE�UIF�&YBNJOFE�-JGF� 7

vau28703_ch01_001-031.indd 7 05/09/17 05:58 PM

simultaneously? What is the nature of causality? Can an e”ect ever precede its cause?
What is the nature of time? Is time travel possible?

Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge. Questions of interest: What
is knowledge? What is truth? Is knowledge possible—can we ever know anything? Does
knowledge require certainty? What are the sources of knowledge? Is experience a source
of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain knowledge of the empirical
world through reason alone? If we have knowledge, how much do we have? When are
we justified in saying that we know something? Do we have good reasons to believe that
the world exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds constitute reality?

Axiology is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.
!e study of moral value is known as ethics. Ethics involves inquiries into the nature
of moral judgments, virtues, values, obligations, and theories. Questions of interest:
What makes an action right (or wrong)? What things are intrinsically good? What is
the good life? What gives life meaning? What makes someone good (or bad)? What
moral principles should guide our actions and choices? Which is the best moral
theory? Is killing ever morally permissible? If so, why? Are moral standards objective
or subjective? Is an action right merely because a culture endorses it? Does morality
depend on God? What makes a society just?

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. Questions of interest: What are the rules
for drawing correct inferences? What is the nature and structure of deductive argu-
ments? How can propositional or predicate logic be used to evaluate arguments?
Upon what logical principles does reasoning depend? Does logic describe how the
world is—or just how our minds work? Can conclusions reached through inductive
logic be rationally justified?

In addition to these divisions, there are subdivisions of philosophy whose job is to
examine critically the assumptions and principles that underlie other fields. !us we
have the philosophy of science, the philosophy of law, the philosophy of mathematics,
the philosophy of history, the philosophy of language, and many others. When those
laboring in a discipline begin questioning its most basic ideas—ideas that define its
subject matter and principles of inquiry—philosophy, the most elemental mode of
investigation, steps in.

Although this text covers mostly Western philosophy, it’s important to keep in
mind that non-Western civilizations have also produced distinctive traditions of
philosophical inquiry, some of which arose thousands of years ago. (See Chapter 6:
“Eastern !ought.”) China, Japan, and India have been especially fruitful ground
for provocative ideas and unique perspectives on philosophical issues that concern
both East and West. In the past, Western philosophers took little notice of non-
Western thought, but that has changed. Studying the philosophical traditions of
non-Western cultures—a field called “world philosophy”—seems more worthwhile
than ever in our age of globalization and increasing cultural diversity.

1.2 SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE

!ere is no better way to understand and appreciate the philosophical quest for knowl-
edge than to study the life and work of Socrates, one of philosophy’s greatest practitio-
ners and the most revered figure in its history. Socrates wrote no philosophy, but we

epistemology !e
philosophical study of
knowledge.

axiology !e study of
value, including both
aesthetic value and moral
value.

ethics !e study of
morality using the
methods of philosophy.

logic !e study of correct
reasoning.

“!ere’s a di”erence
between a philosophy and
a bumper sticker.”

—Charles Schulz

8 CHAPTER 1 8IZ�1IJMPTPQIZ

vau28703_ch01_001-031.indd 8 05/09/17 05:58 PM

know about his thinking and character through his famous pupil Plato, who portrayed
him in several dialogues, or conversations (notably in Euthyphro, Crito, and Apology).

For millennia Socrates has been inspiring generations by his devotion to phil-
osophical inquiry, his relentless search for wisdom, and his determination to live
according to his own high standards. As mentioned earlier, he famously said that
“the unexamined life is not worth living,” and he became the best example of some-
one living his life by that maxim.

For Socrates, an unexamined life is a tragedy because it results in grievous harm
to the soul, the immaterial, divine part of a human. !e soul is harmed by lack
of knowledge—ignorance of one’s own self and of the most important values in
life (the good). But knowledge of these things is a mark of the soul’s excellence.
A clear sign that a person has an unhealthy soul is her exclusive pursuit of social
status, wealth, power, and pleasure instead of the good of the soul. !e good of the
soul is attained only through an uncompromising search for what’s true and real,
through the wisdom to see what is most vital in life. Such insight comes from ratio-
nal self- examination and critical questioning of facile assumptions and unsupported

“!e point of philosophy
is to start with something
so simple as not to seem
worth stating, and to
end with something so
paradoxical that no one
will believe it.”

—Bertrand Russell

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Plato
No philosopher—with the possible exception of Aristotle—has
had a deeper and more lasting e”ect on Western thought than
Plato (c. 427–347 BCE). He was born in Athens into an influen-
tial aristocratic family and grew up during the perilous years of
the Peloponnesian War, a struggle between Athens and the Pelo-
ponnesian states. He was a student and admirer of Socrates, who
turned Plato’s mind toward philosophy and the pursuit of wisdom.
He was horrified by Socrates’ execution in 399 for impiety and
corruption of Athenian youth, so he left Athens, traveling widely,
possibly to Sicily and Egypt. When he returned to Athens, he
founded the Academy, a teaching college regarded as the first uni-
versity, and devoted the rest of his life to teaching and writing
philosophy. (!e Academy endured for hundreds of years until it was abolished by the Eastern
Roman emperor Justinian I.) !e Academy’s most renowned student was Aristotle, who en-
tered the school at age seventeen and remained for twenty years.

Plato’s thinking is embodied in his dialogues, twenty-five of which exist complete. !ey
were written during a span of fifty years and have been divided into three periods: early,
middle, and late. !e early dialogues include Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno, and Gorgias.
!ese early works portray Socrates as a brilliant and principled deflater of his contemporaries’
bogus claims to knowledge. !e middle dialogues include Phaedo, Republic, and !eaetetus;
the late ones consist of Critias, Parmenides, Sophist, s, and others.

PORTR AIT

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beliefs. To get to the truth, Socrates thinks, we must go around the false certitudes
of custom, tradition, and superstition and let reason be our guide. !us he played
the role of philosophical gadfly, an annoying pest to the people of Athens, prodding
them to wake up and seek the wisdom within their grasp.

We know very little about Socrates’ life. He spent all his days in Athens
except for a term of military service when he soldiered in the Peloponnesian War.

THEN AND NOW

Socrates Café
!e Socratic method is alive and well in the twenty-first century; Christopher Phillips,
author and educator, has seen to that. He has traveled from one end of the country to
another to facilitate philosophical discussions based on the Socratic method. !ese informal
gatherings attract people of all ages from all sorts of backgrounds and life experiences. He
calls the dialogues Socrates Cafés. !ey are held in co”eehouses, day care centers, senior
centers, high schools, churches, and other places, and they have had a profound e”ect on
him and on many people who have participated in such discussions. As Phillips says:

For a long time, I’d had a notion that the demise of a certain type of philosophy
has been to the detriment of our society. It is a type of philosophy that Socrates
and other philosophers practiced in Athens in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.
A type that utilized a method of …

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