ExploringChildWelfare-CynthiaCrosson-Tower3.pdf

CSWE 2015 EPAS Core Competencies and Practice Behavior Examples in This Text

Competency Chapter

Competency 1: Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior Ethical and Professional
Behavior

Behaviors:

Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant
laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical conduct of research, and
additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context

9, 14

Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations

2, 8, 12

Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and
electronic communication

14

Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes

Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior 13

Competency 2: Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice Diversity and Difference
in Practice

Behaviors:

Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in
shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels

2, 3, 10, 11, 12

Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own
experiences

2

Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and
values in working with diverse clients and constituencies

3, 6, 7

Competency 3: Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic,
and Environmental Justice

Human Rights and Justice

Behaviors:

Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for
human rights at the individual and system levels

2, 6, 9

Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice 1

Competency 4: Engage in Practice-informed Research
and Research-informed Practice

Research-informed
Practice (OR) Practice-
informed Research

Behaviors:

Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 7

Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods
and research findings

Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery 4, 6

Adapted with the permission of Council on Social Work Education. Content also appears in margin callouts throughout the text.

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CSWE 2015 EPAS Core Competencies and Practice Behavior Examples in This Text

Competency Chapter

Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice Policy Practice

Behaviors:

Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service
delivery, and access to social services

5, 6

Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social
services

1, 8, 11, 14

Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human
rights and social, economic, and environmental justice

1

Competency 6: Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities

Engagement

Behaviors:

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies

5

Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and
constituencies

Competency 7: Assess Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities

Assessment

Behaviors:

Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and
constituencies

4, 11

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from
clients and constituencies

8

Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical
assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies

5

Select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and
values and preferences of clients and constituencies

5

Competency 8: Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities

Intervention

Behaviors:

Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance
capacities of clients and constituencies

4, 8, 13

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and
constituencies

10, 11

Use inter-professional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes 12

Negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies

Facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals 9

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CSWE 2015 EPAS Core Competencies and Practice Behavior Examples in This Text

Competency Chapter

Competency 9: Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities

Evaluation

Behaviors:

Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes 3

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes

4

Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes 12, 13

Apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo,
and macro levels

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Exploring Child
Welfare

A Practice Perspective

Cynthia Crosson-Tower

SEvEnth Edition

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Crosson-Tower, Cynthia, author.
Title: Exploring child welfare: a practice perspective / Cynthia
Crosson-Tower.
Description: Seventh Edition. | New York: Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition
of the author’s Exploring child welfare, c2013. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016037531 (print) | LCCN 2016043877 (ebook) | ISBN 9780134547923 |
ISBN 0134547926
Subjects: LCSH: Child welfare—United States. | Social case work with
children—United States. | Family social work—United States. | Social
work education—United States.
Classification: LCC HV741 .T682 2018 (print) | LCC HV741 (ebook) | DDC
362.70973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016037531

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Print Book:
ISBN-10: 0-13-454792-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-454792-3

Print Book with Enhanced eText Package:
ISBN 10: 0-13-430079-3
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-430079-5

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For Andrew, whose journey
through the service system
has taught us a great deal,

with much love.

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ix

Preface

We cannot forget that children are our most important resource. It is through our children
that we can touch the future. Children must depend on all of us to protect and nurture
them to meet that future. Usually that task falls to parents. But what if they are struggling,
unable, or even unwilling to carry the burden themselves? Hillary Clinton, in her book It
Takes a Village, expanded the African saying “It takes a village to raise a child” and spoke
of how it is every citizen’s responsibility to ensure children’s well-being.

The services provided under the child welfare system are the tools that the “village,”
or society, uses to care for its children. These services vary greatly in purpose, intensity,
cost, and procedures. To someone unfamiliar with the services for children and their fami-
lies, they may seem like a maze. This book is designed to help potential practitioners un-
derstand these services and become comfortable using them and working within a variety
of fields. The following pages emphasize the practice perspective from the vantage point
of the professional as well as the child or family that is being helped. Because the goal is
to empower the individual and family, the term consumer has become increasingly popular
as a way of referring to those using services. By seeing the person as a consumer, rather
than a “patient” or “client” as in the past, the practitioner becomes more of a guide or sup-
port as the family seeks to help itself. Thus, the analogy of the “village” becomes stronger
by bringing to mind a community that helps its members rather than disempowers them.
Certainly, there are times when a family is not able to care for its children and society must
step in, but with increased community efforts to support family life, we hope that this is
less likely to happen.

Plan for the text
This book is designed to explore child welfare services from the least intrusive to the more
intrusive and finally those that substitute care for the family. The chapters are arranged so
that, after a brief background of child welfare and the family, the reader will recognize the
services that support family life, those that supplement the family’s roles, and those that
substitute for what the family should provide.

The overarching theme of this edition is to consider trauma-informed practice. Many—
if not most—of the children who come to the attention of children’s services have experi-
enced some form of trauma, whether it be child maltreatment, exposure to violence at home
or in the community, exposure to addictions, or a variety of other assaults on their devel-
opment. Our schools also report that a significant number of children in our educational
system are impacted by trauma of various types. Recognizing this, it is vital that those who
work with children and their families do so in ways that do not further traumatize them.
Throughout the chapters of this text, the authors emphasize trauma-informed practice in an
effort to prepare the future professional to meet the needs of traumatized children.

Chapter 1 presents a framework for child welfare by considering the past: how chil-
dren were perceived and treated and the services available for them. Chapter 2 looks at

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x Preface

traditional and non-traditional families. It explores the roles and rights of family members
in diverse cultures. The chapter also outlines internal and external stressors that may lead a
family to seek help from the community.

Many children within our society live in poverty, which makes it difficult for them to
develop normally. What are the implications of growing up in poverty? Chapter 3 answers
this question. It also looks at current methods of fighting poverty and speculates about
ways in which society might reduce child poverty.

Poverty is not the only social problem that plagues today’s children. They must
deal with many issues. Two of the most prevalent are violence and addiction. Chapter 4
explores the problems facing children who grow up in a violent society, who are addicted
to drugs or alcohol, or have parents who are substance abusers. Many children are also
brought up by parents who are involved in military service. Chapter 5 looks at the needs
of and services for military families, a population with its own unique needs. Chapter 6
acquaints the reader with the services provided for children through education and social-
ization, outlining childcare and school-based services and how these might be trauma-
sensitive. Chapter 7 looks at families that have parenting problems that lead to child abuse
or neglect. Chapter 8 discusses family preservation services that strive to keep families
together in their own homes and asks the question “What really is in the child’s best in-
terests?” Children may come to the attention of the court system for a variety of reasons.
Juvenile court services for children are outlined in Chapter 9.

Today, a problem of troubling proportions is teens having children, at a younger age
than ever, and attempting the challenging role of parenting. Chapter 10 examines this phe-
nomenon and its impact on the teens and their children.

When families are unable to provide for their children, substitute arrangements must
be made. Chapters 11–13 explore these arrangements. Chapter 11 provides insight into the
foster care system, from entrance into the placement process to termination. It describes the
roles, feelings, and attitudes of the birth parents and foster parents. The role of the foster care
social worker also is discussed. Chapter 12 outlines the adoption process, from the ways
children are released for adoption to the feelings of the adoptive parent(s) and the problems
they face. But not every child is able to adjust to a home environment. Chapter 13 describes
residential settings for children for whom the family is not a viable alternative.

The text concludes with Chapter 14, which explores the future for children and their
families. What will this century bring in the way of policy changes, resources, and new
problems to be faced? These are topics of discussion for today and challenges for tomor-
row’s practitioners. Case examples from field experience have been woven throughout the
text to help the reader see the faces behind the words.

This seventh edition provides updated information about services and their impact on
children, especially in the twenty-first century, with its pervasive violence and changing
values. It should be noted that much of the research on child welfare is now being done
in the Canada, Britain, and other European countries as these cultures strive to cope with
improving their services to children. Although I have used these sources when they were
germane to the issues in the United States, some of the most current literature was based
on the policies of those particular cultures.

new to this Edition
New to this edition is the format of the text.

• Each chapter features Learning Outcomes to give the student an idea of what will
be covered in the chapter. These correspond to the sections in the chapter and each
section is summarized individually at the end of the section.

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xiPreface

• Throughout the chapter, you will notice words in boldface. These are key terms
that you should know. They are further defined for you at the end of the book in the
Glossary.

In addition, there have been changes in the content.

• The book has been revised with thought to trauma-informed care and treatment, a
concept that is the driving force in today’s service provision.

• The chapter on poverty (Chapter 3) is new and ref lects the current thinking and
practice in dealing with this difficult issue.

• The chapter on court services (Chapter 9) has been rewritten by an attorney who
specializes in juvenile court services and reflects the most up-to-date thinking.

• The educational settings chapter (Chapter 6) has been refocused to explore trauma-
sensitive educational approaches.

Exploring Child Welfare: A Practice Perspective is a suitable text for both undergrad-
uate and graduate students in the fields of social work, human services, psychology, soci-
ology, counseling, and education.

instructor Supplements
This text is accompanied by the following instructor supplements, which can be down-
loaded from Pearson’s Instructor’s Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com. Click
on Support and then Download Instructor’s Resources.

• Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank
• PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations

Acknowledgments
Many have helped, directly or indirectly, with the completion of this text. My thanks go first
to my family—my husband, Jim, my son, Andrew, and his dad, Charlie—who have made
allowances and helped me out as I sought to get these revisions in on time. My appreciation
goes to my dear friend Marcia Gagliardi, who has become one of my best advocates and
source of encouragement. And once again to Peggyann Prasinos, my research assistant and
friend, whose cheerfulness, creativity, and computer savvy are invaluable.

The contributors to this edition deserve mention: thanks to Lynne Kellner, Laura
Garofoli, Catherine Sinnott, and Kathleen Craigen.

Also, I thank the reviewers of this edition—Pamela Bailey, Montgomery County
Community College; Joyece E. Dykes Anderson, University of South Carolina; Ebony
English, Community College of Allegheny County; and Sheri Weistaner, Lewis-Clark
State College.

This book would not be possible without the numerous students and colleagues over
the years who have motivated me to explore ever new vistas in child welfare and my son,
Andrew, through whose experiences I have seen child welfare services through new eyes.

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xii

Brief Contents
1. Children: our Most important Resource 1

2. the Changing Family 21

3. Children and Families in Poverty 55
by Lynne Kellner and Kathleen Craigen

4. the impact of violence and Addiction on Children 87

5. Children Against the Backdrop of War:
Addressing the needs of Military Families 109

6. trauma-Sensitive Educational Settings 129
by Laura M. Garofoli

7. Child Abuse and neglect: Protecting Children
When Families Cannot 147

8. Family Preservation or Child Placement? Serving the Child’s
Best interests 187
by Lynne Kellner and Cynthia Crosson-Tower

9. Juvenile Court Justice: Promoting the Rights and Welfare of
Children and Families 215
by Catherine C. Sinnott

10. teenage Pregnancy and Parenting 233
by Lynne Kellner

11. Children in Family Foster Care 265

12. the Adoption of Children 297

13. Children in Residential Settings 337

14. our Children’s Future 375

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Contents

1. Children: our Most important Resource 1
The Need for Child Welfare Services Today 1

A Brief History of the Plight of Children 2
Abortion, Infanticide, and Abandonment 4
Child Labor and Education 4

Early Efforts to Care for and Help Children 7
Out-of-Home Care 7
Childcare 8

Advocacy in the Provision of Children’s Services 9

Providing Services for Children Today 13
Today’s Children 13
Services for Today’s Children 14
Services in the Future 15
Becoming a Child Welfare Worker Today 16

SUMMARY 18

2. the Changing Family 21
A Picture of Today’s Family 21

The Family as a System 24
Family Roles and Rules 25
Communication Patterns 25
Observation of the Family as a System 26

Types of Families and How They Function 28
The Emotional Climate of Families 29
The Family Life Cycle 31

The Impact of Culture on Families 34
Families with Anglo-European Roots 34
Families with Native American Roots 36
Families with African American Roots 38
Families with Hispanic Roots 40
Families with Asian Roots 42
Families with Middle Eastern Roots 44
Family with Diverse Sexual Orientations 45

xiii

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Stresses on Families and How They Cope 47
Parental/Family Dysfunction 47
Role Definition and Inequality 48
Parent–Child Relations 48
Disability 49
When Families Need Help 49
The Family as a Resilient Unit 50

SUMMARY 52

3. Children and Families in Poverty 55
by Lynne Kellner and Kathleen Craigen

Demographics: Who are the Poor? 55
Defining Poverty 55
Demographics 57
Geographic Distribution of Poverty 58
Family Composition: Child’s Age and Family Structure 58
Cultural Membership and Risk of Poverty 59

Causes of Poverty 61
The Great Recession and Employment Difficulties 61
Child and Family Homelessness 61
Parents’ Education and How Children Are Affected 62
Disabilities 63
Immigration 64
Additional Causes of Poverty 65

Impact of Poverty 66
Impoverished Environment 66
Health, Development, and Education 69

Efforts to Alleviate Poverty 73
Prevention Services and Assistance Programs 74
Opportunities for Youth 78
Why Poverty Endures 79
Shaping the Future of Poverty Prevention and Services 80
How to Reduce Child Poverty Right Now 82

SUMMARY 85

4. the impact of violence and Addiction on Children 87
Children and Violence in the Community 88

War in the Streets 88
School Violence and Bullying 92

Violence at Home and in Intimate Relationships 95
Violence in Families 95
Peer Violence in Relationships 97

xiv Contents

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Children and Their Parents’ Substance Abuse 98
Substance-Abusing Parents 98

Children and Adolescents Who Abuse Substances 104
Effects and Treatment of Adolescent Drug Abuse 106

SUMMARY 108

5. Children Against the Backdrop of War:
Addressing the needs of Military Families 109
Today’s Military: Another Culture 109

The Military Culture as it Impacts the Military Family 112
Reasons for Enlistment 112
Belonging to the Warrior Society 113

Types of Military Families 115
Military Men 115
Military Women 115
Dual Military Couples 116
Families of the National Guard and Reserves 116

Issues Facing the Children of Military Families 117
Living with Change 117
Effects of Deployment and Return 118
Educational Issues 120
Spillover of Violence 121
Financial Concerns 123

A Strength–Based Approach to Working with Military Families 124

SUMMARY 126

6. trauma-Sensitive Educational Settings 129
by Laura M. Garofoli

At-Risk: Trauma and Academic Failure 130

Creating Trauma-Sensitive Educational Settings 133
Childcare 133
K–12 Schools 134

Social Workers in Educational Settings 138

Educational Rights of Traumatized Children 140

SUMMARY 145

7. Child Abuse and neglect: Protecting Children
When Families Cannot 147
Historical View of Children and Their Welfare 147

Child Neglect Throughout History 148
Child Labor and Maltreatment 149

xv Contents

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Sexual Mores and Abuses 149
Efforts to Control Child Abuse 150

Maltreatment Defined 152
Physical Abuse 152
Neglect 158
Sexual Abuse 162
Emotional or Psychological Abuse 170

Reporting Child Maltreatment 172
Intake 173
Assessment 174
Case Management and Treatment 176

Court Intervention in Protective Cases 177
Juvenile or Civil Court 177
Criminal Court 178
The Effect of Court Involvement on Children 179

The Role of the Protective Services Worker 179

Future of Protective Services 182
Customized Response and the Necessity of Training 182
Community-Based Child Protection 183
Encouraging Informal and Natural Helpers 184

SUMMARY 184

8. Family Preservation or Child Placement? Serving the Child’s Best
interests 187
by Lynne Kellner and Cynthia Crosson-Tower

Brief History of Family-Based Services 188
Colonial America to 1875 188
The Emergence of Charitable and Private Organizations 189
Public Child Welfare Services 190
The Emerging Concept of Permanency Planning 190
Children in Care Today 192

Types of Family-Based Services 193
Theories That Underlie Family-Based Services 193
Family Support Services 195
Family Preservation Services 195
Preservation or Child Placement? 198

Assessing Effectiveness of Family-Based Services 201
Family Preservation Workers 203

Preserve the Family or Place the Child? 204

Shaping the Future of Family-Based Services 209
Attention to Cultural Diversity 211
Program Design, Evaluation, and Continuing Research 212

SUMMARY 213

xvi Contents

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9. Juvenile Court Justice: Promoting the Rights and Welfare of
Children and Families 215
by Catherine C. Sinnott

The Origins and Purpose of the Juvenile Court 216

Juvenile Court Cases 217
Delinquencies 218
Status Offenses 220
Care and Protection Cases 221
Disposition of Care and Protection Cases 222
Appeals Cases 223

Trauma in the Juvenile Court 224
Challenges in Juvenile Court Settings 225
Time Delays in Juvenile Court 226
Complexities of Social Work in the Juvenile Court 226
Coping with Trauma in Court 227

Trends in Juvenile Justice and Child Welfare 228

SUMMARY 230

10. teenage Pregnancy and Parenting 233
by Lynne Kellner

Historical Perspectives 233
Defining Teen Pregnancy 234
How Teen Pregnancy Came to Be Viewed as a Problem 234
Fluctuations in Teen Birth Rates 237

Risk and Protective Factors 241
Individual Factors and Childhood Experiences 241
Family Factors 244
How Teens Make Decisions about Fertility and Childrearing 246

Impact on Mother, Father, and Child 248
Medical Concerns 248
Education and Developmental Issues 250
Economic Instability 250
Family Structure and Dynamics 252

Intervention Programs 254
Primary Prevention: Focusing on Sexual Antecedents 255
Primary Prevention: Nonsexual Antecedents 257
Primary Prevention: Sexual and Nonsexual Antecedents 258
Secondary Prevention: Services for Teen Parents 259

Shaping the Future of Services 262

SUMMARY 263

xvii Contents

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11. Children in Family Foster Care 265
Family Foster Care: History and Today’s Foster Care System 266

Historical Beginnings 266
Foster Care in Recent Years 267
The Nature of Foster Care Today 268
Types of Foster Homes 271
Reasons Children Enter Foster Care 272

Parents: Foster and Biological 275
Foster Parents 275
Birth Parents with Children in Foster Care 281

Children in Foster Care 284
Feelings About Placement and Separation 284
Feelings About Birth Parents 285
Feelings About Foster Parents 286
Life in Foster Care 286
Leaving Foster Care 286

The Role of the Foster Care Social Worker 289

The Future of Foster Care 292
Political Influences 292
Future Directions and Concerns 293

SUMMARY 295

12. the Adoption of Children 297
The Evolution of Adoption 298

Definitions and Assumptions 300

Issues and Changes in Adoption Today 304
Decreased Number of Adoptable Children 304
Changes in Types of Children Available for Adoption 305
Controversy over Agency-Assisted versus Independent Adoptions 306
Access to Information and Openness in Adoption 309
Transracial Adoption: Domestic and International 310
Adoption Disruptions and the Need for Follow-Up 313

Adoptive Participants 315
Birth Parents 315
Children Available for Adoption 318
Adoptive Applicants 321

The Adoptive Process 324
The Homestudy 325
Placement and Legalization 326
Postlegalization Services 327
Adoption Disruption 329
The Role of the Adoption Worker 330

xviii Contents

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The Search and Lifelong Services 331
Supporters of the Search 331
Who Searches 332
Search Outcome 332
Sealed Records 333
Consent Contracts 333
Lifelong Services 333

SUMMARY 334

13. Children in Residential Settings 337
Historical Perspective and Today’s Residential Settings 337

Historical Perspective 337
Types of Residential Care Today 340

Children in Residential Settings 346
Meeting Community Needs 346
Meeting the Child’s Specific Needs 347
Adjustment to Placement 348
Life in a Residential Setting 348
Components of a Residential Setting 348
Level System and Token Economy 350
The Influence of Peer Culture 351
Handling Crises in Residential Settings 352
Sexually Acting Out in Residential Care 354
Sexual Abuse of Children in Residential Care 356
Termination from Residential Setting 357
Hospitalization 358

Working with Families of Children in Residential Care 361
Motivation of Parents 361
Types of Family Treatment …