Final Reflection 1000 words

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L E C T U R E S L I D E S A R E N O T N O T E S

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D I V E R S I T Y
A N D

I N C L U S I O N

Dr Helena Liu

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Week 3 — Critical Approaches to Diversity

Photograph of the Civil Rights March on Washington, 28th August, 1963 courtesy of the
National Archives.

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Last week in this subject, we explored the

context of multiculturalism in Australia and

how it gave rise to current ideologies and

practices of diversity management. An

online video also introduced power and

privilege.

REVIEW

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REVIEW
MULTICULTURALISM
White Australia haunts our treatment of diversity as a commodity to be

pursued, captured and used in ways that benefit white institutions.

INDIVIDUALISM
Psychological perspectives of power has kept attention on individuals

rather than structural forms of power.

WE ARE ALL DIVERSE
The term ‘diversity’ expanded beyond traditional disadvantaged groups

to include identifications such as education, corporate background and

personality. Diversity’s vagueness is its strength. As “‘diversity’ does not

so powerfully appeal to our sense of justice and equality” (Benschop,

2001, p. 1166), it has been more attractive to organisational elites (see also

Ahmed, 2012; Puar, 2011).

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AGENDA
Week 3

• Power and privilege

• Identities in diversity management

• Individualist and systemic approaches to diversity

• Feedback on journal tasks and self-study

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This lecture is about developing critical consciousness as members of society who
live and work together. Feelings of anxiety, discomfort, guilt and even anger may
surface, but they suggest learning and growth.

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I D E N T I T I E S
S E C T I O N

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Identities are individuals’ subjective

interpretations of who they are, based on

their socio‐demographic characteristics,

political identifications, roles, and group

memberships (Caza et al., 2018).

IDENTITY

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IDENTITY
Identity “can be linked to nearly everything: from

mergers, motivation and meaning‐making to ethnicity,

entrepreneurship and emotions to politics,

participation and project teams” (Alvesson, Ashcraft

and Thomas, 2008, p. 5).

Our meanings of self are not fixed and static, but rather,

multidimensional and dynamic (Ashforth, Harrison and

Corley, 2008; Brown, 2015; Caza et al., 2018).

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1. Collective (e.g., organisational,

occupational, etc.)

2. Role (e.g., ‘entrepreneur’, ‘leader’, etc.)

3. Personal (e.g., gender, racial, notion of

‘good worker’, etc.)

IDENTITY

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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION
OF GENDER
Gender was traditionally assumed to be a mandatory binary

system where humans are characterised as male or female at

birth based on the appearance of their external genitalia.

Traditional Assumptions
In this essentialist view, those born male are supposed to act ‘masculine’

and be sexually attracted to women and those born female are supposed

to act ‘feminine’ and be sexually attracted to men.

Society then applies “multiple methods of … reinforcement including

legal, religious and cultural practices to enforce adherence to these

gender roles” (Nagoshi, Nagoshi & Brzuzy, 2014, p. 16). The socialisation of

this gender binary became viewed as ‘natural’ and thus left unquestioned

(Garfinkel, 1967).

Relationships between men and women were primarily assumed to be

for reproduction, which reinforced a gender role schema.

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However, in practice, gender roles have

changed over time based on the needs of

the culture. It is less rigid than the

traditional view suggests (Connell, 2002).

GENDER
IN PRACTICE

Two students at the Faculty of Medicine in Kabul in 1962

listening to their professor (at right) as they examine a

plaster cast showing a part of a human body.

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GENDER AS PRACTICE
‘DOING’ GENDER

Social norms inform the mundane social practices and

behaviours that denote ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’ (West

and Zimmerman, 1987). Most of us ‘do’ our gendered

identity without thinking about it, but we were taught at

some time/place what it meant to be a ‘boy’ and ‘girl’.

Consequently, we monitor the gender ‘performances’ of

others and ourselves and move along a narrowly prescribed

path.

Sociologist Tristan Bridges gives a fascinating example of how we do
gender with wallets and purses:
http://creativesociology.blogspot.com/2011/08/doing-gender.html
VIDEO: Sociologist C.J. Pascoe discusses the roots of bullying and its
relationship with the enforcement of masculine stereotypes in young men
and boys: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Ha2kSDJ9dY (6mins).

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It has been “conclusively demonstrated that

racial categories linking the physical, mental

and behavioural traits of selected individuals

to a hidden nature putatively shared by

them as a group are without scientific basis”

(Ingram, 2005, p. 243).

WHAT IS RACE?

Art from Nordisk familjebok (1904)

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SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION
OF RACE
Like gender, what it means to be ‘black’ and ‘white’ have

shifted over time across contexts. For example, Noel Ignatiev’s

(1995) work explored how Irish migrants in the U.S. ‘became’

white from the mid–19th Century.

Art from Harper’s Weekly.

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SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION
OF RACE
From 1850 to 1920, Mexicans were considered by definition

“white” in the United States. This changed during the Great

Depression and in 1930, the US Census officially separated

“Mexican” from “white” as an identity category and restricted

immigration as well as repatriated those already living in the

US (Overmyer-Velázquez, 2013).

José Antonio Romualdo Pacheco, Jr. (1831–1899)

served as Governor of California (1875). Official

portrait from the California State Capitol.

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Race (and gender) is not only a

categorisation externally imposed on you by

others, but one that you can claim politically

for you and your community.

RACE
IN PRACTICE

The three races according to the German Meyers Konversations-
Lexikon of 1885-90.

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“There was a time when the term ‘Asian American’ was not merely a
demographic category, but a fight you were picking with the world” —

Jeff Chang (in the foreword for Ishizuka, 2016, p. i).

For Asian Australian identities, see Ang (2014)

PHOTOGRAPH: Asian American protestors rally for Peter Yew in 1975
by Corky Lee. See a trailer for a documentary about the photographer,
Photographic Justice: The Corky Lee Story: https://vimeo.com/213750495.

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I N D I V I D U A L A N D
S Y S T E M I C A P P R O A C H E S

S E C T I O N

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(NEO)LIBERALISM
Where societies come to be defined through market rationalities so that
economic considerations take precedence over democratic values, social

issues are translated into private matters and citizens are treated as
customers (Giroux, 2003).

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LIBERAL
INTERVENTIONS
Focusing at the individual level, liberal interventions seek equal

rights, opportunities and compensation (Kirton, Greene &

Dean, 2007).

Individualisation
Individualised measures can mean that marginalised groups become

reframed as deficient (e.g., not ambitious enough) and targeted for

development.

Liberal values have more recently been co-opted into existing systems of

power (see postfeminism: Lewis et al., 2017; Rottenberg, 2014).

The traditional approach of looking at one identity at a time can also elide

intersectional considerations (Crenshaw, 1989; 1991).

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POWER

1. Systemic

2. Institutionalised

3. Internalised

Power extends beyond interpersonal interactions.

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GENDERED ORGANISATIONS
As important social phenomena, gender relations

influence the organisational functioning and the ways

we think about aims, strategy, values, leadership, and

so on (Calás and Smircich, 2006). This means shifting

from an individual-level perspective towards a

sociological perspective where we think of work and

organisations as being inherently gendered (Acker,

1990).

Our focus then shifts from counting the number of

‘men’ and ‘women’ in organisations, for example, to

power systems underpinning the structures of

organisations and societies (MacKinnon, 1982).

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GENDERED
ORGANISATIONS
Gender differences are structured into organisations. Rosabeth

Moss Kanter (1977) argued that while organisations are defined

as a gender-neutral, even the earliest models of organisations

revealed a ‘masculine ethic’ where the traits assumed to

belong to men were seen to be key to effective management.

In other words, patriarchy as a system of power structures

organisations to maintain women’s experiences of

discrimination, exclusion, segregation and low wages (Acker,

1990).

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RACIALISED
ORGANISATIONS
Like gender, organisations are inexorably racialised.

Racial inequality is not merely “in” organisations but “of” them,

as racial processes are foundational to organisational formation

and continuity (Ray, 2019).

Like gender, race is part of a wider system of power that is not

only institutionalised but internalised.

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DOUBLE
CONSCIOUSNESS

W.E.B DuBois (2005, p. 9) explored

the consequences of living beneath

the white gaze through his concept

of ‘double consciousness,’ which he

described as “a peculiar sensation …

of always looking at one’s self

through the eyes of others, of

measuring one’s soul by the tape of

a world that looks on in amused

contempt and pity”.

The manifestations of double consciousness include a sense of one’s own
inferiority that can be seen in the black-on-black violence of both
traditional colonies and modern ghettos (Liu, 2020). It can also see
individuals endorse ideologies or policies that are repressive to one’s
group, as DuBois observed among his black contemporaries, like Booker T.
Washington, who argued for the black population to receive only
industrial training and be confined to manual labour. Part and parcel of
being a person of colour is about negotiating our double consciousness.
For a history of Black political conservativism in the United States, see
Saviors or Sellouts: The Promise and Peril of Black Conservatism, from
Booker T. Washington to Condoleezza Rice by Christopher A. Bracey
(2008).

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WEEK 4
Re-Radicalising Diversity and Inclusion

On decolonising diversity, queering

organisations and other forms of radical

love

Read the required readings, work on your

reflexive journal, download the lecture slides

and attend class.

NEXT CLASS

Demonstrators march through the streets during the Gay Liberation Day
parade in New York in 1971.

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REFERENCES
Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender & Society, 4(2), 139–158.

Ahmed, S. (2012). On Being Included: Racism and Diversity in Institutional Life. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Alvesson, M., Ashcraft, K.L. & Thomas, R. (2008). Identity matters: Reflections on the construction of identity
scholarship in organization studies. Organization, 15(1), 5–28.

Ashforth, B.E., Harrison, S.H. & Corley, K.G. (2008). Identification in organizations: An examination of four
fundamental questions. Journal of Management, 34(3), 325–374.

Bauer, G.R., Hammond, R., Travers, R., Kaay, M., Hohenadel, K.M. & Boyce, M. (2009). “I don’t think this is theoretical;
this is our lives”: How erasure impacts health care for transgender people. Journal of the Association of Nurses in
AIDS Care, 20(5), 348–361.

Benschop, Y. (2001). Pride, prejudice and performance: Relations between HRM, diversity and performance.
International Journal of Human Resources Management, 12(7), 1166–1181.

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2006). Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the
United States. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Bracey, C.A. (2008). Saviors or Sellouts: The Promise and Peril of Black Conservatism, from Booker T. Washington to
Condoleezza Rice. Boston: Beacon Press.

* = the required
readings of the
topic

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REFERENCES
Brown, A.D. (2015). Identities and identity work in organizations. International Journal of Management Reviews,

17(1), 20–40.

Calás, M.B., & Smircich, L. (2006). From the “woman’s point of view” ten years later: Towards a feminist organization
studies. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. R. Nord (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Organization Studies (2nd ed., pp.
284–346). London: Sage.

Caza, B.B., Vough, H., & Puranik, H. (2018). Identity work in organizations and occupations: Definitions, theories, and
pathways forward. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(7), 889–910.

* Clare, E. (2001). Stolen bodies, reclaimed bodies: Disability and queerness. Public Culture, 13(3), 359–365.

Connell, R.W. (1987). Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Connell, R.W. (1995). Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Connell, R.W. (2002). Gender. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Connell, R.W. (2014). Margin becoming centre: For a world-centred rethinking of masculinities. NORMA:
International Journal for Masculinity Studies, 9(4), 217–231.

Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination
doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–167.

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REFERENCES
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color.

Stanford Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.

Deitch, E.A., Barsky, A., Butz, R.M., Chan, S., Brief, A.P. & Bradley, J. (2003). Subtle yet significant: The existence and
impact of everyday racial discrimination in the workplace. Human Relations, 56(11), 1299–1324.

Donaldson, M. & Tomsen, S.A. (2003). Male Trouble: Looking at Australian Masculinities. Sydney: Pluto Press.

DuBois, W.E.B. (2005). The Souls of Black Folk. New York: Pocket Books.

Essed, P. (1991). Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. Newbury Park: Sage.

Feagin, J.R. (2013). The White Racial Frame: Centuries of Racial Framing and Counter-Framing. New York, NY:
Routledge.

Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge. New York: Pantheon Books.

Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies In Ethnomethodology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Giroux, H.A. (2003). Spectacles of race and pedagogies of denial: Anti-Black racist pedagogy under the reign of
neoliberalism. Communication Education, 52(3/4), 191–211.

Gorman-Murray, A. (2013). Urban homebodies: Embodiment, masculinity, and domesticity in inner Sydney.
Geographical Research, 51(2), 137–144.

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REFERENCES
Hill, J.H. (2009). The Everyday Language of White Racism. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Ignatiev, N. (1995). How the Irish Became White. New York: Routledge.

Ishizuka, K.L. (2016). Serve the People: Making Asian America in the Long Sixties. Brooklyn: Verso.

Kanter, R.M. (1977). Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.

Jackson, S. (2006). Gender, sexuality and heterosexuality: The complexity (and limits) of heteronormativity. Feminist
Theory, 7(1), 105–121.

Kimmel, M. (2006). Manhood in America (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Kirton, G., Greene, A. & Dean, D. (2007). British diversity professionals as change agents: Radicals, tempered radicals
or liberal reformers? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(11), 1979–1994.

Lewis, P., Benschop, Y., & Simpson, R. (2017). Postfeminism, gender and organization. Gender, Work and
Organization, 24(3), 213–225.

Liu, H. (2017). Sensuality as subversion: Doing masculinity with Chinese Australian professionals. Gender, Work and
Organization, 24(2), 194–212.

* Liu, H. (2020). Destruction. In H. Liu, Redeeming Leadership: An Anti-Racist Feminist Intervention (pp. 63–79).
Bristol: Bristol University Press.

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REFERENCES
MacKinnon, C.A. (2013). Intersectionality as method: A note. Signs, 38(4), 1019–1030.

Martin, K. & Kazyak, E. (2009). Hetero-romantic love and heterosexiness in children’s G-rated films. Gender & Society,
23(3), 315–336.

Nagoshi, J.L., Nagoshi, C.T. & Brzuzy, S. (2014). Gender and Sexual Identity: Transcending Feminist and Queer
Theory. New York: Springer.

Nkomo, S.M. & Al Ariss, A. (2014). The historical origins of ethnic (white) privilege in US organizations. Journal of
Managerial , 29(4), 389–404.

* Noon, M. (2018). Pointless diversity training: Unconscious bias, new racism and agency. Work, Employment and
Society, 32(1), 198–209.

Overmyer-Velázquez, M. (2013). Good neighbors and White Mexicans: Constructing race and nation on the Mexico-
U.S. border. Journal of American Ethnic History, 33(1), 5–34.

Puar, J. (2011). “I would rather be a cyborg than a goddess”: Intersectionality, assemblage, and affective politics.
Transversal. Retrieved from http://eipcp.net/transversal/0811/puar/en

Rottenberg, C. (2014). The rise of neoliberal feminism. Cultural Studies, 28(3), 418–437.

Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Signs, 5(4), 631–660.

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REFERENCES
* Rumens, N. (2017). Queering lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender identities in human resource development

and management education contexts. Management Learning, 48(2), 227–242.

Seidman, S. (2005). From polluted homosexual to the normal gay: Changing patterns of sexual regulation in
America. In C. Ingraham (Ed.), Thinking Straight: New Work in Critical Heterosexuality Studies (pp. 39–62). New
York: Routledge.

Warner, M. (1999). The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life. New York: The Free Press.

West, C. & Zimmerman, D.H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.

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