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You
May Ask
Yourself
an introduction to thinking
like a sociologist

Core Sixth Edition

You
May Ask
Yourself

Dalton Conley
Princeton university

w. w. norton
new York | London

an introduction to thinking
like a sociologist

Core Sixth Edition

W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder

Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the

adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program

beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-

century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—

were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its

employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and

professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest

publishing house owned wholly by its employees.

Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013, 2011, 2008 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

All rights reserved

Printed in Canada

Editor: Justin Cahill

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Assistant Editors: Erika Nakagawa, Rachel Taylor

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Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi

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Book Designer: Kiss Me I’m Polish LLC, New York

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ISBN: 978-0-393-67418-7 (pbk.)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Conley, Dalton, 1969– author.

Title: You may ask yourself : an introduction to thinking like a sociologist/

Dalton Conley, Princeton University.

Description: Sixth edition. | New York : W.W. Norton, [2019] | Includes bibliographical

references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018048480 | ISBN 9780393674170 (pbk.)

Subjects: LCSH: —Methodology. | —Study and teaching.
Classification: LCC HM511 .C664 2019 | DDC 301.01—dc23 LC record available at

https://lccn.loc.gov/2018048480

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110

wwnorton.com

W. W. Norton & Company, Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

https://lccn.loc.gov/2018048480

http://wwnorton.com

Brief Contents

Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination: An Introduction 2

Chapter 2 Methods 46

Chapter 3 Culture and Media 80

Chapter 4 Socialization and the Construction of Reality 120

Chapter 5 Groups and Networks 158

Chapter 6 Social Control and Deviance 196

Chapter 7 Stratification 246

Chapter 8 Gender 290

Chapter 9 Race 336

Chapter 10 Family 390

Glossary A1

Bibliography A9

Credits A38

index A42

Contents ix

Contents
xix Preface

2 chapter 1: The Sociological Imagination:
An Introduction

4 The Sociological Imagination

6 HOW TO BE A SOCIOLOGIST ACCORDING TO QUENTIN TARANTINO:

A Scene From Pulp Fiction

8 What Are the True Costs and Returns of College?

11 Getting That “Piece of Paper”

15 What Is a Social Institution?

18 The of

18 Two centuries of

19 Auguste Comte and the Creation of

23 Classical Sociological Theory

27 American

31 Modern Sociological Theories

35 and Its Cousins

35 History

37 Anthropology

38 The Psychological and Biological Sciences

39 Economics and Political Science

40 Divisions within

41 Microsociology and Macrosociology

42 Conclusion

42 Questions for Review

44 Practice: Seeing Sociologically

Contentsx

46 chapter 2: Methods

50 Research 101

51 Causality versus Correlation

54 Variables

55 Hypothesis Testing

56 Validity, Reliability, and Generalizability

57 Role of the Researcher

61 Choosing Your Method

61 Data Collection

66 SAMPLES: THEY’RE NOT JUST THE FREE TASTES AT THE SUPERMARKET

72 Ethics of Social Research

73 POLICY: THE POLITICAL BATTLE OVER STATISTICAL SAMPLING

75 Conclusion

76 Questions for Review

78 Practice: , What Is It Good For?

80 chapter 3: culture and Media

82 Definitions of Culture

82 Culture = Human – Nature

83 Culture = (Superior) Man – (Inferior) Man

85 Culture = Man – Machine

86 Material versus Nonmaterial Culture

87 Language, Meaning, and Concepts

88 Ideology

89 Studying Culture

92 Subculture

93 Cultural Effects: Give and Take

94 Reflection Theory

97 Media

97 From the Town Crier to the Facebook Wall: A Brief History

99 Hegemony: The Mother of All Media Terms

100 The Media Life Cycle

100 Texts

100 Back to the Beginning: Cultural Production

101 Media Effects

Contents xi

103 Mommy, Where Do Stereotypes Come From?

104 THE RACE AND gENDER POLITICS OF MAKING OUT

106 Racism in the Media

108 Sexism in the Media

109 Political Economy of the Media

111 Consumer Culture

111 Advertising and Children

113 Culture Jams: Hey Calvin, How ’Bout Giving

That Girl a Sandwich?

114 Conclusion

115 POLICY: WHAT’S IN A NAME?

117 Questions for Review

118 Practice: Subculture Wars

120 chapter 4: Socialization and
the construction of Reality

123 Socialization: The Concept

124 Limits of Socialization

124 “Human” Nature

125 Theories of Socialization

125 Me, Myself, and I: Development of

the Self and the Other

129 Agents of Socialization

129 Families

132 School

134 Peers

135 Adult Socialization

136 Total Institutions

136 Social Interaction

138 Gender Roles

141 The Social Construction of Reality

144 Dramaturgical Theory

148 Ethnomethodology

150 New Technologies: What Has the Internet Done to Interaction?

Contentsxii

152 POLICY: ROOMMATES WITH BENEFITS

154 Conclusion

155 Questions for Review

156 Practice: Role conflict and Role Strain

158 chapter 5: groups and Networks

160 Social Groups

161 Just the Two of Us

162 And Then There Were Three

165 Size Matters: Why Social Life Is Complicated

166 Let’s Get This Party Started: Small Groups,

Parties, and Large Groups

168 Primary and Secondary Groups

169 Group Conformity

170 In-Groups and Out-Groups

170 Reference Groups

170 From Groups to Networks

171 Embeddedness: The Strength of Weak Ties

174 Six Degrees

175 Social Capital

180 CASE STUDY: SURVIVAL OF THE AMISH

183 Network Analysis in Practice

184 The Social Structure of Teenage Sex

187 Romantic Leftovers

188 Organizations

189 Organizational Structure and Culture

190 Institutional Isomorphism: Everybody’s Doing It

191 POLICY: RIGHT TO BE FORGOTTEN

192 Conclusion

193 Questions for Review

194 Practice: How to Disappear

Contents xiii

196 chapter 6: Social control AND DEVIANCE

199 What Is Social Deviance?

200 Functionalist Approaches to Deviance and Social Control

205 Social Control

207 A Normative Theory of Suicide

212 Social Forces and Deviance

214 Symbolic Interactionist Theories of Deviance

214 Labeling Theory

218 THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT AND ABU GHRAIB

221 Stigma

222 Broken Windows Theory of Deviance

224 Crime

224 Street Crime

225 White-Collar Crime

226 Interpreting the Crime Rate

229 Crime Reduction

229 Deterrence Theory of Crime Control

231 Goffman’s Total Institution

233 Foucault on Punishment

237 The US Criminal Justice System

240 POLICY: DOES PRISON WORK BETTER AS PUNISHMENT OR REHAB?

242 Conclusion

242 Questions for Review

244 Practice: Everyday Deviance

246 chapter 7: Stratification

249 Views of Inequality

249 Jean-Jacques Rousseau

250 The Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Malthus

253 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

255 Standards of Equality

255 Equality of Opportunity

256 Equality of Condition

257 Equality of Outcome

Contentsxiv

258 Forms of Stratification

259 Estate System

260 Caste System

262 Class System

264 Status Hierarchy System

268 Elite–Mass Dichotomy System

269 INCOME VERSUS WEALTH

270 How Is America Stratified Today?

270 The Upper Class

271 The Middle Class

275 The Poor

275 Global Inequality

279 Social Reproduction versus Social Mobility

283 POLICY: CLASS-BASED AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

285 Conclusion

286 Questions for Review

288 Practice: The $5,000 Toothbrush

290 chapter 8: gender

292 Let’s Talk About Sex Gender

293 Sex: A Process in the Making

294 Seeing Sex as Social: The Case of Nonbinary Individuals

295 Sexed Bodies in the Premodern World

296 Contemporary Concepts of Sex and the Paradoxes of Gender

296 Gender: What Does It Take to Be Feminine or Masculine?

297 Making Gender

299 Gender Differences over Time

300 WELCOME TO ZE COLLEGE, ZE

303 Theories of Gender Inequality

304 Rubin’s Sex/Gender System

305 Parsons’s Sex Role Theory

306 Psychoanalytic Theories

307 Conflict Theories

Contents xv

308 “Doing Gender”: Interactionist Theories

309 Black Feminism and Intersectionality

310 Postmodern and Global Perspectives

311 Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind

312 Growing Up with Gender

313 Inequality at Work

320 in the Bedroom

320 Sex: From Plato to NATO

321 The Social Construction of Sexuality

325 Contemporary Sexualities: The Q Word

326 “Hey”: Teen Sex, From Hooking Up to

Virginity Pledges

330 POLICY: #METHREE

331 Conclusion

332 Questions for Review

334 Practice: Measuring Mansplaining

336 chapter 9: Race

338 The Myth of Race

340 The Concept of Race from the Ancients to Alleles

341 Race in the Early Modern World

344 Eugenics

346 Twentieth-Century Concepts of Race

349 Racial Realities

351 Race versus Ethnicity

354 Ethnic Groups in the United States

354 Native Americans

356 African Americans

357 Latinos

359 Asian Americans

360 Middle Eastern Americans

361 The Importance of Being White

364 Minority–Majority Group Relations

365 Pluralism

Contentsxvi

368 Segregation and Discrimination

372 Racial Conflict

373 Group Responses to Domination

373 Withdrawal

374 Passing

374 Acceptance versus Resistance

375 Prejudice, Discrimination, and the New Racism

377 How Race Matters: The Case of Wealth

379 Institutional Racism

381 The Future of Race

385 POLICY: DNA DATABASES

386 Conclusion

387 Questions for Review

388 Practice: How Segregated Are You?

390 chapter 10: Family

393 Family Forms and Changes

395 Malinowski and the Traditional Family

397 The Family in the Western World Today

400 Keeping It in the Family: The Historical

Divide between Public and Private

401 Premodern Families

402 The Emergence of the Male

Breadwinner Family

404 Families after World War II

405 Family and Work: A Not-So-Subtle Revolution

407 A Feminist “Rethinking of the Family”

409 When Home Is No Haven: Domestic Abuse

410 The Chore Wars: Supermom Does It All

415 Swimming and Sinking: Inequality and American Families

415 African American Families

418 Latino Families

419 Flat Broke with Children

422 The Pecking Order: Inequality Starts at Home

Contents xvii

425 The Future of Families, and There Goes the Nation!

425 Divorce

428 Blended Families

428 Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Families

430 Multiracial Families

431 Immigrant Families

432 POLICY: EXPANDING MARRIAGE

434 Conclusion

434 Questions for Review

436 Practice: Making Invisible Labor Visible

A1 GLOSSARY

A9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A38 CREDITS

A42 INDEX

xix

Preface

I came to sociology by accident, so to speak. During the 1980s, there were
no sociology courses at the high-school level, so I entered college with only
the vaguest notion of what sociology—or even social science—was. Instead,
I headed straight for the pre-med courses. But there was no such thing as a
pre-med major, so I ended up specializing in the now defunct “humanities
field major.” This un-major major was really the result of my becoming a
junior and realizing that I was not any closer to a declared field of study
than I had been when arriving two years earlier. So I scanned a list of all the
electives I had taken until then—philosophy of aesthetics, history of tech-
nology, and so on—and marched right into my advisor’s office, declaring
that it had always been my lifelong dream to study “art and technology in the
twentieth century.” I wrote this up convincingly enough, apparently, because
the college allowed me to write a senior thesis about how the evolution of
Warner Brothers’ cartoon characters—from the stuttering, insecure Porky
Pig to the militant Daffy Duck to the cool, collected, and confident Bugs
Bunny—reflected the self-image of the United States on the world stage
during the Depression, World War II, and the postwar period, respectively.
Little did I know, I was already becoming a sociologist.

After college, I worked as a journalist but then decided that I wanted to
continue my schooling. I was drawn to the critical stance and reflexivity that I
had learned in my humanities classes, but I knew that I didn’t want to devote
my life to arcane texts. What I wanted to do was take those skills—that crit-
ical stance—and apply them to everyday life, to the here and now. I also was
rather skeptical of the methods that humanists used. What texts they chose
to analyze always seemed so arbitrary. I wanted to systematize the inquiry
a bit more; I found myself trying to apply the scientific method that I had
gotten a taste of in my biology classes. But I didn’t want to do science in a
lab. I wanted to be out in the proverbial real world. So when I flipped through
a course catalog with these latent preferences somewhere in the back of my
head, my finger landed on the sociology courses.

Once I became a card-carrying sociologist, the very first course I taught
was Introduction to . I had big shoes to fill in teaching this course
at Yale. Kai Erikson, the world-renowned author of Wayward Puritans and

Prefacexx

Everything in Its Path and the son of psychologist Erik Erikson, was stepping
down from his popular course, The Human Universe, and I, a first-year assis-
tant professor, was expected to replace him.

I had a lot of sociology to learn. After all, graduate training in sociology
is spotty at best. And there is no single theory of society to study in the same
way that one might learn, for example, the biochemistry of DNA transcription
and translation as the central dogma of molecular biology. We talk about the
sociological imagination as an organizing principle. But even that is almost
a poetic notion, not so easily articulated. Think of sociology as more like
driving a car than learning calculus. You can read the manual all you want, but
that isn’t going to teach you how to do it. Only by seeing sociology in action
and then trying it yourself will you eventually say, “Hey, I’ve got the hang
of this!” The great Chinese philosopher Confucius said about learning: “By
three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest;
second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the
bitterest.” Hopefully you can skip the bitterness, but you get the general idea.
For example, by trying to fix a local problem through appealing to your elected
officials, you might better grasp sociological theories of the state.

Hence the title of this book. In You May Ask Yourself, I show readers how
sociologists question what most others take for granted about society, and I
give readers opportunities to apply sociological ways of thinking to their own
experiences. I’ve tried to jettison the arcane academic debates that become
the guiding light of so many intro books in favor of a series of contemporary
empirical (gold) nuggets that show off sociology (and empirical social science
more generally) in its finest hour. Most students who take an introductory
sociology class in college will not end up being sociology majors, let alone
professional sociologists. Yet I aim to speak to both the aspiring major and
the student who is merely fulfilling a requirement. So rather than having pages
filled with statistics and theories that will go out of date rather quickly, You
May Ask Yourself tries to instill in the reader a way of thinking—a scientific
approach to human affairs that is portable, one that students will find useful
when they study anything else, whether history or medicine.

To achieve this ambitious goal, I tried to write a book that was as
“un-textbook”-like as possible, while covering all the material that a student
in sociology needs to know. In this vein, each chapter is organized around
a motivating paradox, meant to serve as the first chilling line of a mystery
novel that motivates the reader to read on to find out (or rather, figure out,
because this book is not about spoon-feeding facts) the nugget, the debate,
the fundamentally new way of looking at the world that illuminates the par-
adox. Along with a paradox, each chapter begins with a profile of a relevant
person who speaks to the core theme of the chapter. These range from myself
to Angelina Jolie to a guy who wore a rainbow-colored clown wig to try and

Preface xxi

get media attention to share his Christian message. In addition, to show the
usefulness of sociological knowledge in shaping the world around us, each
chapter also culminates in a Policy discussion and a Practice activity, which
has been reimagined for the Sixth Edition.

What’s New in the Sixth Edition

Higher education is in rapid transition, with online instruction expanding
in traditional institutions, in the expanding for-profit sector, and in the new
open-courseware movement. The industry is still very much in flux, with
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) failing to displace traditional class-
room education (yet). With these changes, textbooks must also reinvent and
reorient themselves. Students now expect, I believe, an entire multimedia
experience when they purchase a textbook.

To that end, the Third Edition included animations of the associated
chapter Paradoxes. (For the Sixth Edition, we updated the gender animation
to match the new Paradox for that chapter.) For the Fourth Edition, in addition
to a new round of interviews with sociologists, we filmed on the
Street assignment videos. To illustrate a “breaching experiment,” for example,
I went on camera to perform one myself. It has been years since I had been as
nervous speaking on camera as I was the day I walked—barefoot but dressed
in a suit—into W. W. Norton’s conference room filled with unsuspecting
volunteers and proceeded to clip my toenails while I explained the plan for the
day and we surreptitiously filmed their (surprisingly unflinching) response.

In the Fifth Edition, we brought the streets into the classroom. Along
with new Q&A videos with professional sociologists, we added videos (and
text) from folks outside the ivory tower who are doing sociology in their work.
For instance, I spoke with journalist and author Jennifer Senior, who wrote
the best-selling book All Joy and No Fun: The Paradox of Modern Parenting—
an obviously sociological domain. We also heard from Zephyr Teachout, an
insurgent candidate for governor of New York State who ran on an anti-cor-
ruption platform. Other guests included a former FBI agent and a Wall Street
fund manager, among others. These interviews help students understand the
real-world relevance of sociology and reflect the applied turn in the field.

Further reflecting the increasing emphasis on applications within the
discipline, the major new feature in this Sixth Edition is the revamping of the
fourth “P” (the first three being the Paradox, Person, and Policy). Rather than
just answering review questions, these new Practice activities send students
out into the proverbial “streets” (sometimes just metaphorically), where they
get to learn by doing—whether that’s discovering the true price of unpaid
labor in our personal economies, analyzing the structural forces that con-
tribute to one’s own carbon emissions, better managing competing roles and

Prefacexxii

statuses in one’s life, or, failing that, figuring out how to completely disappear
in today’s totally connected society.

The other major change to the Sixth Edition is an overhaul of the Gender
chapter. Perhaps no domain of social life in US society has changed more
dramatically in the past few years than that of gender. As a result, no chapter
was more outdated than Chapter 8. In the revamped version I—with the
extensive help of experts in the fields of sex, gender, and sexuality—really
tried to dig into the concept of gender, turning it inside out, in the service
of conveying an understanding of gender and the sex–gender system as
something processual and fluid. The new Person for the chapter embodied
this shift. Elliot Jackson was someone I “met” on a website I’m addicted to,
Quora.com. It’s a forum where people post questions and answers to them,
and I was browsing responses to the question, “Have you ever reconsidered
being transgender?” I was so taken by Elliot’s first-person story about navi-
gating the bathroom in his high school that I reached out to ask if we could
reprint it in the book. Much to my delight, he agreed. An aspiring young
writer, Elliot Jackson is a fantastic chronicler of the trans experience and
much else besides. I urge you all to follow him on Quora, like I did, if you
are taken by his narrative in the chapter.

In addition to these new features, we revised every chapter in the book to
include updated data, research, and examples. Here are some of the highlights:

What’s New by chapter

chapter 1: The Sociological
Imagination: An Introduction
The discussion of the merits of a college degree includes updated data on
the cost of college and earnings by degree holders. A new table illustrates the
concept of overcredentialism, comparing the percentage of bachelor’s degree
holders and high-school graduates in various professions from 1970 to 2015.
In the new Practice feature, “Seeing Sociologically,” students differentiate
between natural laws and social norms.

chapter 2: Methods
Students often struggle with differentiating a theory from an idea, so at
reviewer request, I’ve added two new key terms, scientific method and
theory, to this chapter. A redesigned figure on the research process makes
clearer how theory and hypothesis differ. The new Practice feature invites
students to think about how sociological methods may be useful in their
future careers.

Preface xxiii

chapter 3: culture and Media
In the section on Ideology, I explain how the 2016 presidential election has
proven that our notions of democratic ideology are remarkably resilient
despite recent issues threatening our confidence in democratic institutions,
such as fake news. I’ve added a new discussion about Elijah Anderson’s
notion of “code switching.” The chapter notes the increasing role of com-
puter algorithms in cultural production, including news articles written by
artificial intelligence and algorithms that limit information on social media,
creating the so-called “online echo chamber.” The section on Advertising
and Children now considers Google’s expansion into classrooms with its
low-cost Chromebooks and suite of education software. In the new Practice
feature, “Subculture Wars,” students investigate subcultures and think about
how they reinterpret mainstream cultural memes.

chapter 4: Socialization and the
construction of Reality
The discussion of the Turing Test has been updated. In the section on how
families influence socialization, new findings have been added about how
daughters make parents more politically conservative, especially about sex-
uality. To complement updates in Chapter 8: Gender, the section on Gender
Roles now defines the idea of the gender binary and includes new infor-
mation about male and female behavior in the workplace, including sexual
harassment. In the new Practice activity, “Role Conflict and Role Strain,”
students map out their potentially conflicting roles and statuses, from
roommate to waitress.

chapter 5: Groups and Networks
In a new chapter-opening vignette, students learn about the mysterious
Satoshi Nakamoto, the founder of bitcoin, as a preview of the power of social
networks. The discussion of the strength of weak ties is newly illustrated
by the example of multilevel marketing schemes. Again to complement the
newly revised Gender chapter, the section on the Social Structure of Teen-
age Sex was updated to include Lisa Wade’s recent work on hook-up culture.
In the new Practice feature, “How to Disappear,” students make a plan for
getting off the grid—and think critically about their embeddedness in social
life and institutions.

chapter 6: Social control and Deviance
At reviewer request, the discussion of Durkheim’s theories of suicide has
been condensed. A feature on the Stanford Prison Experiment and Abu
Ghraib acknowledges recent controversy surrounding Zimbardo’s original

Prefacexxiv

methods and findings. Opioid use as an “epidemic” has been added as an
example of labeling theory. Figures and data throughout the chapter have
been updated with the most recently available information about crime and
homicide rates, prison population and demographics, and executions. In the
new Practice feature, I make a list of laws I break on a daily basis and invite
students to follow suit—and to think critically about what kinds of people
are prosecuted for these small infractions.

chapter 7: Stratification
The word stratification has been added as a key term with a corresponding
marginal definition. In the discussion of status hierarchy systems, I show
how statuses can obscure differences within a particular status group, such
as professors—pointing out the wide differences in income and job security
between adjunct and tenure-track faculty. The chapter includes new data
on how much CEOs of America’s largest companies make compared to the
average worker, and throughout the chapter, updated data includes the dis-
tribution of net wealth, the poverty line, and outlook on future prospects.
In the new Practice feature, students research the most and least expensive
versions of a particular good or service in their area—such a $5,000 tooth-
brush—and think about how these extremes can serve as an indicator for
class stratification.

chapter 8: gender
Thoroughly revised based on extensive reviewer feedback, this chapter now
begins with a personal narrative from Elliot, a trans boy who is harassed
for using a restroom at his high school, and whose story I follow through-
out the chapter. I frame the revised chapter with a brand-new Paradox and
corresponding animation: “How do we investigate inequality between men
and women without reinforcing binary thinking about gender?” The chap-
ter includes updated research throughout, including Jane Ward’s work on
men who have sex with men, Georgiann Davis’s research about the intersex
community, and Tristan Bridges and C. J. Pascoe’s notion of “hybrid mascu-
linities.” In addition to more material on …

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