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You
May Ask
Yourself
an introduction to thinking
like a sociologist
Core Sixth Edition
You
May Ask
Yourself
Dalton Conley
Princeton university
w. w. norton
new York | London
an introduction to thinking
like a sociologist
Core Sixth Edition
W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder
Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Conley, Dalton, 1969– author.
Title: You may ask yourself : an introduction to thinking like a sociologist/
Dalton Conley, Princeton University.
Description: Sixth edition. | New York : W.W. Norton, [2019] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018048480 | ISBN 9780393674170 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: —Methodology. | —Study and teaching.
Classification: LCC HM511 .C664 2019 | DDC 301.01—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2018048480
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110
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Brief Contents
Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination: An Introduction 2
Chapter 2 Methods 46
Chapter 3 Culture and Media 80
Chapter 4 Socialization and the Construction of Reality 120
Chapter 5 Groups and Networks 158
Chapter 6 Social Control and Deviance 196
Chapter 7 Stratification 246
Chapter 8 Gender 290
Chapter 9 Race 336
Chapter 10 Family 390
Glossary A1
Bibliography A9
Credits A38
index A42
Contents ix
Contents
xix Preface
2 chapter 1: The Sociological Imagination:
An Introduction
4 The Sociological Imagination
6 HOW TO BE A SOCIOLOGIST ACCORDING TO QUENTIN TARANTINO:
A Scene From Pulp Fiction
8 What Are the True Costs and Returns of College?
11 Getting That “Piece of Paper”
15 What Is a Social Institution?
18 The of
18 Two centuries of
19 Auguste Comte and the Creation of
23 Classical Sociological Theory
27 American
31 Modern Sociological Theories
35 and Its Cousins
35 History
37 Anthropology
38 The Psychological and Biological Sciences
39 Economics and Political Science
40 Divisions within
41 Microsociology and Macrosociology
42 Conclusion
42 Questions for Review
44 Practice: Seeing Sociologically
Contentsx
46 chapter 2: Methods
50 Research 101
51 Causality versus Correlation
54 Variables
55 Hypothesis Testing
56 Validity, Reliability, and Generalizability
57 Role of the Researcher
61 Choosing Your Method
61 Data Collection
66 SAMPLES: THEY’RE NOT JUST THE FREE TASTES AT THE SUPERMARKET
72 Ethics of Social Research
73 POLICY: THE POLITICAL BATTLE OVER STATISTICAL SAMPLING
75 Conclusion
76 Questions for Review
78 Practice: , What Is It Good For?
80 chapter 3: culture and Media
82 Definitions of Culture
82 Culture = Human – Nature
83 Culture = (Superior) Man – (Inferior) Man
85 Culture = Man – Machine
86 Material versus Nonmaterial Culture
87 Language, Meaning, and Concepts
88 Ideology
89 Studying Culture
92 Subculture
93 Cultural Effects: Give and Take
94 Reflection Theory
97 Media
97 From the Town Crier to the Facebook Wall: A Brief History
99 Hegemony: The Mother of All Media Terms
100 The Media Life Cycle
100 Texts
100 Back to the Beginning: Cultural Production
101 Media Effects
Contents xi
103 Mommy, Where Do Stereotypes Come From?
104 THE RACE AND gENDER POLITICS OF MAKING OUT
106 Racism in the Media
108 Sexism in the Media
109 Political Economy of the Media
111 Consumer Culture
111 Advertising and Children
113 Culture Jams: Hey Calvin, How ’Bout Giving
That Girl a Sandwich?
114 Conclusion
115 POLICY: WHAT’S IN A NAME?
117 Questions for Review
118 Practice: Subculture Wars
120 chapter 4: Socialization and
the construction of Reality
123 Socialization: The Concept
124 Limits of Socialization
124 “Human” Nature
125 Theories of Socialization
125 Me, Myself, and I: Development of
the Self and the Other
129 Agents of Socialization
129 Families
132 School
134 Peers
135 Adult Socialization
136 Total Institutions
136 Social Interaction
138 Gender Roles
141 The Social Construction of Reality
144 Dramaturgical Theory
148 Ethnomethodology
150 New Technologies: What Has the Internet Done to Interaction?
Contentsxii
152 POLICY: ROOMMATES WITH BENEFITS
154 Conclusion
155 Questions for Review
156 Practice: Role conflict and Role Strain
158 chapter 5: groups and Networks
160 Social Groups
161 Just the Two of Us
162 And Then There Were Three
165 Size Matters: Why Social Life Is Complicated
166 Let’s Get This Party Started: Small Groups,
Parties, and Large Groups
168 Primary and Secondary Groups
169 Group Conformity
170 In-Groups and Out-Groups
170 Reference Groups
170 From Groups to Networks
171 Embeddedness: The Strength of Weak Ties
174 Six Degrees
175 Social Capital
180 CASE STUDY: SURVIVAL OF THE AMISH
183 Network Analysis in Practice
184 The Social Structure of Teenage Sex
187 Romantic Leftovers
188 Organizations
189 Organizational Structure and Culture
190 Institutional Isomorphism: Everybody’s Doing It
191 POLICY: RIGHT TO BE FORGOTTEN
192 Conclusion
193 Questions for Review
194 Practice: How to Disappear
Contents xiii
196 chapter 6: Social control AND DEVIANCE
199 What Is Social Deviance?
200 Functionalist Approaches to Deviance and Social Control
205 Social Control
207 A Normative Theory of Suicide
212 Social Forces and Deviance
214 Symbolic Interactionist Theories of Deviance
214 Labeling Theory
218 THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT AND ABU GHRAIB
221 Stigma
222 Broken Windows Theory of Deviance
224 Crime
224 Street Crime
225 White-Collar Crime
226 Interpreting the Crime Rate
229 Crime Reduction
229 Deterrence Theory of Crime Control
231 Goffman’s Total Institution
233 Foucault on Punishment
237 The US Criminal Justice System
240 POLICY: DOES PRISON WORK BETTER AS PUNISHMENT OR REHAB?
242 Conclusion
242 Questions for Review
244 Practice: Everyday Deviance
246 chapter 7: Stratification
249 Views of Inequality
249 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
250 The Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Malthus
253 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
255 Standards of Equality
255 Equality of Opportunity
256 Equality of Condition
257 Equality of Outcome
Contentsxiv
258 Forms of Stratification
259 Estate System
260 Caste System
262 Class System
264 Status Hierarchy System
268 Elite–Mass Dichotomy System
269 INCOME VERSUS WEALTH
270 How Is America Stratified Today?
270 The Upper Class
271 The Middle Class
275 The Poor
275 Global Inequality
279 Social Reproduction versus Social Mobility
283 POLICY: CLASS-BASED AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
285 Conclusion
286 Questions for Review
288 Practice: The $5,000 Toothbrush
290 chapter 8: gender
292 Let’s Talk About Sex Gender
293 Sex: A Process in the Making
294 Seeing Sex as Social: The Case of Nonbinary Individuals
295 Sexed Bodies in the Premodern World
296 Contemporary Concepts of Sex and the Paradoxes of Gender
296 Gender: What Does It Take to Be Feminine or Masculine?
297 Making Gender
299 Gender Differences over Time
300 WELCOME TO ZE COLLEGE, ZE
303 Theories of Gender Inequality
304 Rubin’s Sex/Gender System
305 Parsons’s Sex Role Theory
306 Psychoanalytic Theories
307 Conflict Theories
Contents xv
308 “Doing Gender”: Interactionist Theories
309 Black Feminism and Intersectionality
310 Postmodern and Global Perspectives
311 Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind
312 Growing Up with Gender
313 Inequality at Work
320 in the Bedroom
320 Sex: From Plato to NATO
321 The Social Construction of Sexuality
325 Contemporary Sexualities: The Q Word
326 “Hey”: Teen Sex, From Hooking Up to
Virginity Pledges
330 POLICY: #METHREE
331 Conclusion
332 Questions for Review
334 Practice: Measuring Mansplaining
336 chapter 9: Race
338 The Myth of Race
340 The Concept of Race from the Ancients to Alleles
341 Race in the Early Modern World
344 Eugenics
346 Twentieth-Century Concepts of Race
349 Racial Realities
351 Race versus Ethnicity
354 Ethnic Groups in the United States
354 Native Americans
356 African Americans
357 Latinos
359 Asian Americans
360 Middle Eastern Americans
361 The Importance of Being White
364 Minority–Majority Group Relations
365 Pluralism
Contentsxvi
368 Segregation and Discrimination
372 Racial Conflict
373 Group Responses to Domination
373 Withdrawal
374 Passing
374 Acceptance versus Resistance
375 Prejudice, Discrimination, and the New Racism
377 How Race Matters: The Case of Wealth
379 Institutional Racism
381 The Future of Race
385 POLICY: DNA DATABASES
386 Conclusion
387 Questions for Review
388 Practice: How Segregated Are You?
390 chapter 10: Family
393 Family Forms and Changes
395 Malinowski and the Traditional Family
397 The Family in the Western World Today
400 Keeping It in the Family: The Historical
Divide between Public and Private
401 Premodern Families
402 The Emergence of the Male
Breadwinner Family
404 Families after World War II
405 Family and Work: A Not-So-Subtle Revolution
407 A Feminist “Rethinking of the Family”
409 When Home Is No Haven: Domestic Abuse
410 The Chore Wars: Supermom Does It All
415 Swimming and Sinking: Inequality and American Families
415 African American Families
418 Latino Families
419 Flat Broke with Children
422 The Pecking Order: Inequality Starts at Home
Contents xvii
425 The Future of Families, and There Goes the Nation!
425 Divorce
428 Blended Families
428 Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Families
430 Multiracial Families
431 Immigrant Families
432 POLICY: EXPANDING MARRIAGE
434 Conclusion
434 Questions for Review
436 Practice: Making Invisible Labor Visible
A1 GLOSSARY
A9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
A38 CREDITS
A42 INDEX
xix
Preface
I came to sociology by accident, so to speak. During the 1980s, there were
no sociology courses at the high-school level, so I entered college with only
the vaguest notion of what sociology—or even social science—was. Instead,
I headed straight for the pre-med courses. But there was no such thing as a
pre-med major, so I ended up specializing in the now defunct “humanities
field major.” This un-major major was really the result of my becoming a
junior and realizing that I was not any closer to a declared field of study
than I had been when arriving two years earlier. So I scanned a list of all the
electives I had taken until then—philosophy of aesthetics, history of tech-
nology, and so on—and marched right into my advisor’s office, declaring
that it had always been my lifelong dream to study “art and technology in the
twentieth century.” I wrote this up convincingly enough, apparently, because
the college allowed me to write a senior thesis about how the evolution of
Warner Brothers’ cartoon characters—from the stuttering, insecure Porky
Pig to the militant Daffy Duck to the cool, collected, and confident Bugs
Bunny—reflected the self-image of the United States on the world stage
during the Depression, World War II, and the postwar period, respectively.
Little did I know, I was already becoming a sociologist.
After college, I worked as a journalist but then decided that I wanted to
continue my schooling. I was drawn to the critical stance and reflexivity that I
had learned in my humanities classes, but I knew that I didn’t want to devote
my life to arcane texts. What I wanted to do was take those skills—that crit-
ical stance—and apply them to everyday life, to the here and now. I also was
rather skeptical of the methods that humanists used. What texts they chose
to analyze always seemed so arbitrary. I wanted to systematize the inquiry
a bit more; I found myself trying to apply the scientific method that I had
gotten a taste of in my biology classes. But I didn’t want to do science in a
lab. I wanted to be out in the proverbial real world. So when I flipped through
a course catalog with these latent preferences somewhere in the back of my
head, my finger landed on the sociology courses.
Once I became a card-carrying sociologist, the very first course I taught
was Introduction to . I had big shoes to fill in teaching this course
at Yale. Kai Erikson, the world-renowned author of Wayward Puritans and
Prefacexx
Everything in Its Path and the son of psychologist Erik Erikson, was stepping
down from his popular course, The Human Universe, and I, a first-year assis-
tant professor, was expected to replace him.
I had a lot of sociology to learn. After all, graduate training in sociology
is spotty at best. And there is no single theory of society to study in the same
way that one might learn, for example, the biochemistry of DNA transcription
and translation as the central dogma of molecular biology. We talk about the
sociological imagination as an organizing principle. But even that is almost
a poetic notion, not so easily articulated. Think of sociology as more like
driving a car than learning calculus. You can read the manual all you want, but
that isn’t going to teach you how to do it. Only by seeing sociology in action
and then trying it yourself will you eventually say, “Hey, I’ve got the hang
of this!” The great Chinese philosopher Confucius said about learning: “By
three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest;
second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the
bitterest.” Hopefully you can skip the bitterness, but you get the general idea.
For example, by trying to fix a local problem through appealing to your elected
officials, you might better grasp sociological theories of the state.
Hence the title of this book. In You May Ask Yourself, I show readers how
sociologists question what most others take for granted about society, and I
give readers opportunities to apply sociological ways of thinking to their own
experiences. I’ve tried to jettison the arcane academic debates that become
the guiding light of so many intro books in favor of a series of contemporary
empirical (gold) nuggets that show off sociology (and empirical social science
more generally) in its finest hour. Most students who take an introductory
sociology class in college will not end up being sociology majors, let alone
professional sociologists. Yet I aim to speak to both the aspiring major and
the student who is merely fulfilling a requirement. So rather than having pages
filled with statistics and theories that will go out of date rather quickly, You
May Ask Yourself tries to instill in the reader a way of thinking—a scientific
approach to human affairs that is portable, one that students will find useful
when they study anything else, whether history or medicine.
To achieve this ambitious goal, I tried to write a book that was as
“un-textbook”-like as possible, while covering all the material that a student
in sociology needs to know. In this vein, each chapter is organized around
a motivating paradox, meant to serve as the first chilling line of a mystery
novel that motivates the reader to read on to find out (or rather, figure out,
because this book is not about spoon-feeding facts) the nugget, the debate,
the fundamentally new way of looking at the world that illuminates the par-
adox. Along with a paradox, each chapter begins with a profile of a relevant
person who speaks to the core theme of the chapter. These range from myself
to Angelina Jolie to a guy who wore a rainbow-colored clown wig to try and
Preface xxi
get media attention to share his Christian message. In addition, to show the
usefulness of sociological knowledge in shaping the world around us, each
chapter also culminates in a Policy discussion and a Practice activity, which
has been reimagined for the Sixth Edition.
What’s New in the Sixth Edition
Higher education is in rapid transition, with online instruction expanding
in traditional institutions, in the expanding for-profit sector, and in the new
open-courseware movement. The industry is still very much in flux, with
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) failing to displace traditional class-
room education (yet). With these changes, textbooks must also reinvent and
reorient themselves. Students now expect, I believe, an entire multimedia
experience when they purchase a textbook.
To that end, the Third Edition included animations of the associated
chapter Paradoxes. (For the Sixth Edition, we updated the gender animation
to match the new Paradox for that chapter.) For the Fourth Edition, in addition
to a new round of interviews with sociologists, we filmed on the
Street assignment videos. To illustrate a “breaching experiment,” for example,
I went on camera to perform one myself. It has been years since I had been as
nervous speaking on camera as I was the day I walked—barefoot but dressed
in a suit—into W. W. Norton’s conference room filled with unsuspecting
volunteers and proceeded to clip my toenails while I explained the plan for the
day and we surreptitiously filmed their (surprisingly unflinching) response.
In the Fifth Edition, we brought the streets into the classroom. Along
with new Q&A videos with professional sociologists, we added videos (and
text) from folks outside the ivory tower who are doing sociology in their work.
For instance, I spoke with journalist and author Jennifer Senior, who wrote
the best-selling book All Joy and No Fun: The Paradox of Modern Parenting—
an obviously sociological domain. We also heard from Zephyr Teachout, an
insurgent candidate for governor of New York State who ran on an anti-cor-
ruption platform. Other guests included a former FBI agent and a Wall Street
fund manager, among others. These interviews help students understand the
real-world relevance of sociology and reflect the applied turn in the field.
Further reflecting the increasing emphasis on applications within the
discipline, the major new feature in this Sixth Edition is the revamping of the
fourth “P” (the first three being the Paradox, Person, and Policy). Rather than
just answering review questions, these new Practice activities send students
out into the proverbial “streets” (sometimes just metaphorically), where they
get to learn by doing—whether that’s discovering the true price of unpaid
labor in our personal economies, analyzing the structural forces that con-
tribute to one’s own carbon emissions, better managing competing roles and
Prefacexxii
statuses in one’s life, or, failing that, figuring out how to completely disappear
in today’s totally connected society.
The other major change to the Sixth Edition is an overhaul of the Gender
chapter. Perhaps no domain of social life in US society has changed more
dramatically in the past few years than that of gender. As a result, no chapter
was more outdated than Chapter 8. In the revamped version I—with the
extensive help of experts in the fields of sex, gender, and sexuality—really
tried to dig into the concept of gender, turning it inside out, in the service
of conveying an understanding of gender and the sex–gender system as
something processual and fluid. The new Person for the chapter embodied
this shift. Elliot Jackson was someone I “met” on a website I’m addicted to,
Quora.com. It’s a forum where people post questions and answers to them,
and I was browsing responses to the question, “Have you ever reconsidered
being transgender?” I was so taken by Elliot’s first-person story about navi-
gating the bathroom in his high school that I reached out to ask if we could
reprint it in the book. Much to my delight, he agreed. An aspiring young
writer, Elliot Jackson is a fantastic chronicler of the trans experience and
much else besides. I urge you all to follow him on Quora, like I did, if you
are taken by his narrative in the chapter.
In addition to these new features, we revised every chapter in the book to
include updated data, research, and examples. Here are some of the highlights:
What’s New by chapter
chapter 1: The Sociological
Imagination: An Introduction
The discussion of the merits of a college degree includes updated data on
the cost of college and earnings by degree holders. A new table illustrates the
concept of overcredentialism, comparing the percentage of bachelor’s degree
holders and high-school graduates in various professions from 1970 to 2015.
In the new Practice feature, “Seeing Sociologically,” students differentiate
between natural laws and social norms.
chapter 2: Methods
Students often struggle with differentiating a theory from an idea, so at
reviewer request, I’ve added two new key terms, scientific method and
theory, to this chapter. A redesigned figure on the research process makes
clearer how theory and hypothesis differ. The new Practice feature invites
students to think about how sociological methods may be useful in their
future careers.
Preface xxiii
chapter 3: culture and Media
In the section on Ideology, I explain how the 2016 presidential election has
proven that our notions of democratic ideology are remarkably resilient
despite recent issues threatening our confidence in democratic institutions,
such as fake news. I’ve added a new discussion about Elijah Anderson’s
notion of “code switching.” The chapter notes the increasing role of com-
puter algorithms in cultural production, including news articles written by
artificial intelligence and algorithms that limit information on social media,
creating the so-called “online echo chamber.” The section on Advertising
and Children now considers Google’s expansion into classrooms with its
low-cost Chromebooks and suite of education software. In the new Practice
feature, “Subculture Wars,” students investigate subcultures and think about
how they reinterpret mainstream cultural memes.
chapter 4: Socialization and the
construction of Reality
The discussion of the Turing Test has been updated. In the section on how
families influence socialization, new findings have been added about how
daughters make parents more politically conservative, especially about sex-
uality. To complement updates in Chapter 8: Gender, the section on Gender
Roles now defines the idea of the gender binary and includes new infor-
mation about male and female behavior in the workplace, including sexual
harassment. In the new Practice activity, “Role Conflict and Role Strain,”
students map out their potentially conflicting roles and statuses, from
roommate to waitress.
chapter 5: Groups and Networks
In a new chapter-opening vignette, students learn about the mysterious
Satoshi Nakamoto, the founder of bitcoin, as a preview of the power of social
networks. The discussion of the strength of weak ties is newly illustrated
by the example of multilevel marketing schemes. Again to complement the
newly revised Gender chapter, the section on the Social Structure of Teen-
age Sex was updated to include Lisa Wade’s recent work on hook-up culture.
In the new Practice feature, “How to Disappear,” students make a plan for
getting off the grid—and think critically about their embeddedness in social
life and institutions.
chapter 6: Social control and Deviance
At reviewer request, the discussion of Durkheim’s theories of suicide has
been condensed. A feature on the Stanford Prison Experiment and Abu
Ghraib acknowledges recent controversy surrounding Zimbardo’s original
Prefacexxiv
methods and findings. Opioid use as an “epidemic” has been added as an
example of labeling theory. Figures and data throughout the chapter have
been updated with the most recently available information about crime and
homicide rates, prison population and demographics, and executions. In the
new Practice feature, I make a list of laws I break on a daily basis and invite
students to follow suit—and to think critically about what kinds of people
are prosecuted for these small infractions.
chapter 7: Stratification
The word stratification has been added as a key term with a corresponding
marginal definition. In the discussion of status hierarchy systems, I show
how statuses can obscure differences within a particular status group, such
as professors—pointing out the wide differences in income and job security
between adjunct and tenure-track faculty. The chapter includes new data
on how much CEOs of America’s largest companies make compared to the
average worker, and throughout the chapter, updated data includes the dis-
tribution of net wealth, the poverty line, and outlook on future prospects.
In the new Practice feature, students research the most and least expensive
versions of a particular good or service in their area—such a $5,000 tooth-
brush—and think about how these extremes can serve as an indicator for
class stratification.
chapter 8: gender
Thoroughly revised based on extensive reviewer feedback, this chapter now
begins with a personal narrative from Elliot, a trans boy who is harassed
for using a restroom at his high school, and whose story I follow through-
out the chapter. I frame the revised chapter with a brand-new Paradox and
corresponding animation: “How do we investigate inequality between men
and women without reinforcing binary thinking about gender?” The chap-
ter includes updated research throughout, including Jane Ward’s work on
men who have sex with men, Georgiann Davis’s research about the intersex
community, and Tristan Bridges and C. J. Pascoe’s notion of “hybrid mascu-
linities.” In addition to more material on …
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