Write an essay in about 1100-1200 words on the following topic.

Ethics and
Public Administration

CHAPTER 11

In Chapter 11, students are introduced to ethics in public

administration. The chapter begins with a theoretical

discussion of administrative ethics, transitioning into a more

practical and real-world discussion of bureaucratic discretion

and the formal rules guiding such discretion. This chapter

also covers codes of ethics; the ways in which public

administrators can combat corruption and unethical

practices; and various self-correcting mechanisms for

shady tactics, including whistleblowing.

348 CHAPTER 11

349Ethics and Public Administration

“Management is the science of which

organizations are but experiments.”

JOHN CONSTABLE
English Romantic Painter

(1776-1837)

Postal Workers Mural

“Management is the science of which

organizations are but experiments.”

JOHN CONSTABLE
English Romantic Painter

(1776-1837)

Postal Workers Mural

“Always do right. This will gratify

some people and astonish the rest.”

MARK TWAIN
Author; Satirist

(1835–1910)

– YOUNG MAN, WHY DID YOU CHOOSE THIS PARTICULAR COLLEGE?

– DAD, DON’T ASK STUPID QUESTIONS!

Artist: Y. Shcheglov; Cover of Krokodil [Crocodile] satirical magazine,

1983, No. 19.

350 CHAPTER 11

What Are Ethics?
Ethics are grounded in Greek tradition, represented by teleological and deontolog-

ical theories. According to teleological theories, the consequences of actions are the

most critical factor in determining whether an action should be pursued. Derived

from the Greek telos, meaning “result,” teleological theories stress the importance of

maximizing what is “good.” Deontological theories—derived from the Greek deon,

meaning “that which is binding”—stress motives and intentions, as opposed to the

consequences, as the critical factor in making decisions.

Frederickson and Walling (1999, p. 501) note that distinc-

tions “between teleological and deontological ethics might

be dismissed as useless academic differentiation. But, it

matters a great deal whether a human resources manager

bases actions on teleological reasoning, in which the ends

justify the means, as opposed to deontological reasoning, in

which decisions are based upon principle.”

Ethics, according to French and Granrose (1995), “is a set

of normative guidelines directed at resolving conflicts of

interest so as to enhance societal well-being” (cited in

Zinkhan et al. 2007, p. 363). Thompson (1985) provides a

good definition of what constitutes administrative ethics.

Administrative ethics emphasize “(a) the rights and duties

that individuals should respect when they act in ways that seriously affect the well-

being of other individuals and society; and (b) the conditions that collective prac-

tices and policies should satisfy when they similarly affect the well-being of

individuals and society.” Pinpointing all the factors that bring about and reinforce

unethical conduct at the individual and organizational levels is inherently difficult.

Understanding the theoretical and social bases of ethics may shed light on what

motivates unethical behavior. Bottorff (1997) describes ethics as “a body of princi-

ples or standards of human conduct that govern the behavior of individuals and

groups. Ethics is a branch of philosophy and is considered a normative science be-

cause it is concerned with the norms of human conduct, as distinguished from for-

mal sciences (such as mathematics and logic) and empirical sciences (such as

chemistry and physics). The study of ethics has been at the heart of intellectual

thought since the earliest writings by the ancient Greeks, and its ongoing contri-

bution to the advancement of knowledge and science continues to make ethics a

relevant, if not vital, aspect of management theory” (p. 57).

Unethical behaviors may result from individual and organizational factors. That is,

unethical behavior may be the result of personal values or personality traits. Orga-

ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS

“[Because power

corrupts,] society’s

demands for moral

authority and

character increase

as the importance

of the position

increases.”

JOHN ADAMS

2nd President of the

United States

(1735–1826)

351Ethics and Public Administration

nizational characteristics may be contributing factors as well. Some organizational

cultures place no importance on whether goals and objectives are accomplished

ethically. Without clear ethical standards within an organizational structure, un-

ethical conduct may actually be encouraged. The “end justifies the means” philos-

ophy—one that rewards “getting the job done” regardless of the potential

– A BRIBE?!.. NEVER!..

– A PRESENT? QUITE ANOTHER MATTER…

Artist: V. Travin; “The Fighting Pencil” group, 1969.

352 CHAPTER 11

consequences—is often referred to as Machiavellianism. The Machiavellian philos-

ophy was set forth by the Italian diplomat Niccolo Machiavelli in his treatise The

Prince, which was written around 1513 and published posthumously in 1532. The

Prince provides recommendations on how rulers can gain and maintain power. The

following excerpt centers on Machiavelli’s “means to ends” philosophy:

Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or

feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but,

because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared

than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with. Because this is

to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrate-

ful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and as long as you

succeed they are yours entirely; they will offer you their

blood, property, life and children . . . when the need is

far distant; but when it approaches they turn against

you. And that prince who, relying entirely on their prom-

ises, has neglected other precautions, is ruined; because

friendships that are obtained by payments, and not by

greatness or nobility of mind, may indeed be earned, but

they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon; and men

have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for

love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of

men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves

you by a dread of punishment which never fails.

Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not

win love, he avoids hatred; because he can endure very well being feared

whilst he is not hated, which will always be as long as he abstains from the

property of his citizens and subjects and from their women. But when it is

necessary for him to proceed against the life of someone, he must do it on

proper justification and for manifest cause, but above all things he must

keep his hands off the property of others, because men more quickly for-

get the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony. Besides, pre-

texts for taking away the property are never wanting; for he who has once

begun to live by robbery will always find pretexts for seizing what belongs

to others; but reasons for taking life, on the contrary, are more difficult to

find and sooner lapse. But when a prince is with his army, and has under

control a multitude of soldiers, then it is quite necessary for him to disre-

gard the reputation of cruelty, for without it he would never hold his army

united or disposed to its duties. (Machiavelli 1532/1984)

Machiavelli’s recommendations from nearly five centuries ago reinforce what we

observe all too often—instances of corruption and misdeeds in government. There

are countless examples of unethical behaviors perpetuated by agents of govern-

“The time is

always right to do

what is right.”

MARTIN LUTHER

KING, JR.

Civil Rights Leader

(1929–1968)

353Ethics and Public Administration

mental and nongovernmental organizations. The list of unethical conduct by pub-

lic administrators and officials is too long—the 1972 Watergate Hotel break-in and

burglary of the offices of the Democratic National Committee, which led to the

eventual resignation of President Richard M. Nixon; racial profiling within the

ranks of the New Jersey State Police; incidents of detainee abuse and torture at the

Abu Ghraib Prison in Baghdad, Iraq; South Carolina governor Mark Sanford’s per-

sonal transgressions; the “CIA leak” that brought about Lewis “Scooter” Libby’s ob-

struction of justice and perjury convictions; claims that former Illinois governor

Rod Blagojevich peddled Barack Obama’s U.S. Senate seat after Obama was elected

president, and list goes on.

One particular “official act of misconduct” deals with a notorious clinical study

known as the Tuskegee Experiment. In this 40-year-long experiment, medical

treatment was deliberately withheld from 399 poor, African American sharecrop-

pers from Alabama who had tested positive for syphilis, a highly contagious bacte-

rial STD. Deceived by doctors from 1932 to 1972, the patients were never told that

they suffered from syphilis. Officials from the U.S. Public Health Service went “to

extreme lengths to insure that they received no therapy from any source,” making

this “the longest non-therapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history,”

Tuskegee Study Images from the Records of the Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention.

Source: Inside the National Archives Southeast Region. “6. The Tuskegee Study (1930s-1972)”

http://www.archives.gov/southeast/exhibit/6.php.

354 CHAPTER 11

according to an article in the New York Times (Heller 1972). In 1997 President Bill

Clinton offered a formal apology to the eight living survivors for what its govern-

ment had done.

The United States government did something that was wrong—deeply,

profoundly, morally wrong. It was an outrage to our commitment to in-

tegrity and equality for all our citizens. To our African American citizens,

I am sorry that your federal government orchestrated a study so clearly

racist. That can never be allowed to happen again. It is against everything

our country stands for and what we must stand against is what it was. The

people who ran the study at Tuskegee diminished the stature of man by

abandoning the most basic ethical precepts. (Clinton 1997)

Bureaucracy and Ethics
The mere mention of “bureaucracy” invokes images ranging from gross ineptitude

and the inability to complete simple tasks to elitist public officials abusing their

power. Even though bureaucracy is an essential part of any organization, none

wants to be thought of as bureaucratic (Healy 1996). Conversations about bureau-

cracy often begin and end with comments from the writings of the eminent sociol-

ogist Max Weber. Weber created the bureaucratic model, a model characterized by

formal rules and regulations, specialized roles, a hierarchical structure, and a clear

chain of command. Central to bureaucracy is consistency in terms of actions and be-

haviors. According to Eugene Litwak (1961), within a bureaucracy an individual’s

job position is based on merit (as opposed to nepotism); individual authority and

responsibility is dictated by an individual’s job description;

and there is clear separation between one’s personal life

and one’s work life.

Weber failed to realize that the dynamics of bureaucracy

itself brought about unintended consequences resulting

from personal interests. There are countless examples of

bureaucracies acting without regard for human costs. Ac-

cording to J. Krohe, “The fit between business bureaucra-

cies and conscience is particularly poor. Bureaucracies

insulate individuals from the ultimate victims of miscon-

duct, be they babies drinking doctored apple juice, drivers

in unsafe cars, or little old ladies who lose their savings;

people are thus also insulated from the empathetic impulse that so often sparks

conscience” (1997, p. 17). Ferrell and Skinner (1988) argue that bureaucracy’s cen-

tralized and hierarchical power base actually helps create opportunities for uneth-

ical behavior. That is, with power held in the hands of so few, the discretion of

rank-and-file and middle-level bureaucrats is severely limited. The result is that

these bureaucrats tend to follow authority blindly, regardless of any ethical dilem-

“Nothing is so

contagious as

example; and we

never do any

great good or evil

which does not

produce its like.”

FRANCOIS DE LA

ROCHEFOUCAULD

Writer

355Ethics and Public Administration

“No Surrender”
With the expansion of the federal government

during the Civil War, and the postwar strug-

gle between Democratic President Andrew

Johnson and Congressional Republicans over

control of Reconstruction, the civil service re-

form movement began in earnest in the late

1860s. Reformers, such as cartoonist Thomas

Nast, considered the patronage system of

government appointments based on partisan

loyalty to be corrupt and inefficient. They

wanted to replace it with a system of govern-

ment service based on merit appointments

(through standardized examinations), pro-

motion, and tenure. In 1867, the U.S. House

of Representatives narrowly voted to table a

civil service reform bill, and with the election

of Republican Ulysses S. Grant as president

in 1868, some Republican supporters of the

reform during the Johnson years suddenly decided that the patronage system worked

quite well. In 1871, however, President Grant created the nation’s first Civil Service Com-

mission, naming as its chairman George William Curtis, the editor of Harper’s Weekly

and president of the National Civil Service Reform Association.

The cartoon presents a scene following Grant’s reelection in November 1872. In the glow

of Republican victory, Senator Simon Cameron and Governor John Hartranft, both of

Pennsylvania, pressured the president to suspend the civil service rules for the Philadel-

phia post office, an important source of patronage for the Republican Party in that state.

Grant steadfastly refused, reaffirming his commitment to civil service reform. Here,

Cameron (left) and Hartranft (right) are dressed as Italian bandits, while their sup-

porters in the background carry aloft a banner inscribed with the battle cry of the pa-

tronage (“spoils”) system: “To the Victors, Belong the Spoils.” Grant expresses his

determination to implement the new civil service regulations, which are held by Co-

lumbia, and Uncle Sam appears (behind the door) as a policeman ready to enforce the

law. The cartoon’s title—“No Surrender”—alludes to Grant’s commitment as Union com-

mander during the Civil War to full Union victory and the “Unconditional Surrender”

(his nickname) of the Confederacy.

Source: Thomas Nast, Harper’s Weekly, December 7, 1872. http://www.harpweek.com.

U.S.G. (Ulysses Grant): “I am deter-

mined to enforce those regulations.”

356 CHAPTER 11

mas. This tendency clearly underscores the importance of establishing and adher-

ing to administrative ethical standards.

The Need for Administrative Ethics
Decisions based on convenience and efficiency—”means to ends”—or on the basis

of economics may be at the heart of unethical behavior.

One of the most commonly agreed-upon notions in the field of public ad-

ministration is that administrators have numerous roles, or value sets,

which are sources for the decisions they make. For example, an adminis-

trator may concentrate quite appropriately on legal issues at one point, or-

ganizational issues at another, and personal interests at still another.

Although there is widespread agreement that these roles and their con-

comitant value sets exist, that agreement quickly dissipates when one tries

to identify and name which roles or value sets are crucial for public ad-

ministrators. (Van Wart 1996, p. 526)

An inherent challenge for public employees is balancing diverse and competing de-

mands. P.B. Strait (1998, p. 12) contends that public employees “must be able to

work within the framework of three goals: loyalty to the organization, responsive-

ness to the needs of the public, and consideration for the employees’ own objec-

tives and desires. These goals provide an environment that is rich in ethical

dilemmas.” The organizational structure in which public

employees currently operate engenders ethical dilemmas.

Public employees are often forced to choose between

obeying policy and serving the needs of clients. For ex-

ample, public health clinics exist to serve those who can-

not otherwise afford care. Patients pay according to

their income. The working poor are caught in between:

not qualifying for assistance and not able to afford to

purchase health care. This same irony also exists in

higher education for students who come from working

families who cannot afford the steep tuition prices and yet do not qualify for

tuition aid. enforcement officers face a similar dilemma when they are

required to spend half of their shifts doing paperwork at the expense of pro-

viding a rapid response to citizens. Employees who work for agencies with

such incongruent policies are often placed in the uncomfortable position of

trying to uphold policy to the detriment of the very people the agencies are

attempting to serve. In choosing to serve the needs of their clients, employ-

ees violate organizational policies and put themselves at risk. Policies of this

nature need to be reviewed to eliminate this unnecessary ethical dilemma.

Until then, choosing the client’s interests over the interests of oneself or the

organization may be the most ethical action of all. (Strait 1998, p. 18)

“Glass, china,

and reputation

are easily cracked,

and never well

mended.”

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

American Statesman;

Ambassador; Patriot

357Ethics and Public Administration

There are several examples where the actions (or inactions) of bureaucrats, who by

virtue of their position are trusted with upholding the public interest, have dis-

honored this responsibility. A potential cure for corruption may lie in organiza-

tional codes of ethics.

“Every Public Question with an Eye

Only to the Public Good”
“Well, the wickedness of all of it is, not that these men were bribed or corruptly in-

fluenced, but that they betrayed the trust of the people, deceived their constituents,

and by their evasions and falsehoods confessed the transaction to be disgraceful.”

—New York Tribune, February 19, 1873.

Justice (to the Saints of the Press):

“Let him that has not betrayed the trust of the People, and is without stain, cast the

first stone.”

This Harper’s Weekly cartoon by Thomas Nast indicts the congressmen involved in the

Credit Mobilier scandal as well as an irresponsible press corps for violating the public

trust. Credit Mobilier was the holding and construction company of the federally sub-

sidized Union Pacific Railroad. Its managers were accused of siphoning off huge

amounts of public money for personal gain, and of attempting to cover up their mis-

deeds by bribing congressmen with discounted stock and bonds.

Source: Thomas Nast, Harper’s Weekly, March 15, 1873. http://www.harpweek.com.

358 CHAPTER 11

Misuse of Position Employee Crossword Puzzle

Answer key at the end of chapter.

Source: U.S. Office of Government Ethics, “Crossword Puzzles,” 2007. www.oge.gov/training/cross-

word_puzzles.aspx.

EXERCISE 11.1

2. You can’t use

___ information to

further your own

private interest or

that of another.

5. Generally, you

can’t use your gov-

ernment title or

position to ___ any

product, enter-

prise, or service.

7. Generally, you

can’t use your

position, title, or

___ associated

with your public

office to imply that

your agency sanc-

tions your outside

activities.

9. You can’t use

government prop-

erty, including the

services of ___,

for unauthorized

purposes.

11. Unless author-

ized, playing

games on your of-

fice computer is a

misuse of official

___ and govern-

ment property.

12. Widely used

and misused

piece of govern-

ment equipment.

1. You are to pro-

tect and ___ gov-

ernment property.

3. Your ___ can’t

ask you to shop

for his wife’s birth-

day present during

duty hours.

4. Recommending

your neighbor for

a federal job on

agency ___ is ok

if you have per-

sonal knowledge

of his abilities or

character.

6. You can’t use

your public office

for private ___.

8. Don’t use your

public office to

___ yourself or

others.

10. You learn on

the job that Com-

pany X found the

cure for a major

disease. You may

not buy ___ in

Company X before

your agency

announces the

company found

the cure.

Across Down

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

8

10

11

12

359Ethics and Public Administration

Countless oaths, pledges, and codes champion the tenets of ethical conduct. They

typically underscore the importance of duty, service, honor, and fairness. One such

noteworthy call for ethical behavior is embodied in Greek tradition—that being the

Athenian Oath:

We will never bring disgrace on this our City by an act of dishonesty or

cowardice. We will fight for the ideals and Sacred Things of the City both

alone and with many. We will revere and obey the City’s laws, and will do

our best to incite a like reverence and respect in those above us who are

prone to annul them or set them at naught. We will strive increasingly to

quicken the public’s sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways we will

transmit this City, not only not less, but greater and more beautiful than

it was transmitted to us.

Declarations of loyalty and commitment to ethical conduct are common through-

out several occupational fields and disciplines. Almost routinely, elected and pub-

lic officials are sworn into service by taking an oath. Physicians must take an oath

to “do no harm,” while attorneys must swear to uphold the U.S. Constitution and

the constitution of the state in which they are admitted to the bar. Like an oath of

office, organizational codes of ethics affirm the importance of ethical standards of

conduct. The American Society for Public Administration’s

(ASPA) Code of Ethics includes five principles that public

administration should champion.

Unethical behavior will occur despite clearly defined codes

of ethics. A multitude of factors influence unethical deci-

sion making and behaviors. In some cases, employment

conditions, such as dissatisfaction with wages and benefits,

may influence individuals to take what they feel is owed to

them. Other factors may concern organizational culture,

whereby a culture of “getting the job done at any cost” encourages disregard for

ethical considerations in the interest of achieving outcomes. Nevertheless, codes

of conduct are a necessary first step toward ensuring ethical conduct.

Condoning Corruption
Citizens frustrated with public bureaucracies are inclined, at times, to take out these

frustrations by using subtle, but nevertheless illicit, strategies. As customers of gov-

ernment, citizens often savor mistakes in their favor, such as a failure to bill for

goods or to stop checks to deceased relatives. Some citizens try to punish public

bureaucracies—which they feel punish them by misrepresenting their eligibility for

assistance when they cannot find a decent job, their personal tax liability when

rates go up, or their own negligence in a product’s failure. Even those bureaucrats

who anger clients can become so turned off that they rip-off their own organiza-

tions. As so-called “time bandits,” they arrive late to work, leave early, take long

“Relativity applies

to physics,

not ethics.”

ALBERT EINSTEIN

Physicist;

Nobel Prize Winner

(1879–1955)

360 CHAPTER 11

Employee Conduct: Ethical or Unethical?
Scenario: Catherine is an official at the Small Administration. From time to

time, she looks in on an elderly neighbor to see if she needs anything. On a recent visit,

Catherine learned that her neighbor was upset over the Internal Revenue Service’s as-

sessment of a penalty against her because of a claimed overdue payment. The neigh-

bor is apprehensive about calling the IRS to explain the error, so Catherine would like to

call for her. She does not intend to take any compensation.

Is the representational service Catherine proposes to provide permissible?

Answer: No.

Explanation: Two overlapping federal statutes, 18 U.S.C. §§ 203 and 205, prohibit an

employee from making representations—whether for compensation or not—before any

department, agency, or court if the matter is one in which the United States has a sub-

stantial interest. The statutes also prohibit an employee from—

• Taking compensation for such representational services provided by

another; and

• Receiving consideration for assisting in the prosecution of a claim against

the United States.

There are a number of exceptions to sections 203 and 205. An important one allows

an employee, under certain circumstances, to represent himself, his parents, his

spouse, his children, and certain others for whom the employee serves in a specific fi-

duciary capacity such as a guardian.

Scenario: Paula works in the public information office of the Internal Revenue Service.

A private trade association offers to pay her to teach a short course on a new taxpayer

assistance program being implemented by the IRS.

May Paula accept the offer?

Answer: No.

Explanation: An employee may not receive compensation—including travel expenses

for transportation and lodging—from any source other than the government for teach-

ing, speaking, or writing that relates to the employee’s official duties. For most employ-

ees, teaching, speaking, or writing is considered “related to official duties” if—

• The activity is part of the employee’s official duties;

• The invitation to teach, speak, or write is extended primarily because of

the employee’s official position;

• The invitation or the offer of compensation is extended by a person

whose interests may be affected substantially by the employee’s

performance of his official duties;

• The activity draws substantially on nonpublic information; or

• The subject of the activity deals in significant part with agency programs,

operations, or policies or with the employee’s current or recent assignments.

Scenario: Sylvia, an employee of the Securities and Exchange Commission, offers to

help a friend with a consumer complaint by calling the manufacturer of a household

appliance. In the course of the conversation with the manufacturer, Sylvia states that

she works for the SEC and is responsible for reviewing the manufacturer’s SEC filings.

EXERCISE 11.2

361Ethics and Public Administration

Has Sylvia misused her public office?

Answer: Yes.

Explanation: Employees may not use their public offices for private gain, either their

own gain or that of others. Sylvia used her office to induce a benefit for private pur-

poses.

Scenario: Joe is delighted with his new boss, Dan. In a few short months, Dan has

brought about creative changes in the division’s work product while, at the same time,

improving efficiency and boosting office morale. The two workers have also developed

a friendship based on mutual respect and shared outside interests. Because of a con-

flicting family commitment, Joe and his daughter will be unable to use their season

tickets for the next Orioles home game, so Joe thinks he’d like to give them to Dan.

May he do so?

Answer: No.

Explanation: And it would be impermissible for Dan to accept the tickets if offered.

An employee may not—

• Give or solicit for a gift to an official superior; or

• Accept a gift from a lower-paid employee, unless the two employees are

personal friends who are not in a superior-subordinate relationship.

In this context, the words “superior” and “subordinate” refer to people in the em-

ployee’s chain of command.

Scenario: Jenny is employed as a researcher by the Veterans Administration. Her

cousin and close friend, Zach, works for a pharmaceutical company that does business

with the VA. Jenny’s 40th birthday is approaching, and Zach and his wife have invited

Jenny and her husband out to dinner to celebrate the occasion.

May Jenny accept?

Answer: Yes.

Explanation: Gifts are permitted where the circumstances make it clear that the gift is

motivated by a family relationship or personal friendship rather than the position of the

employee. It would be improper, however, for Jenny to accept the dinner if Zach

charged the meal to his employer because then it would no longer be a gift from Zach.

…