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ISBN 978-1-29202-263-5

Joining Together
Group Theory and Group Skills
David Johnson Frank Johnson

Eleventh Edition

Joining Togerther Johnson Johnson Eleventh Edition

Joining Together
Group Theory and Group Skills
David Johnson Frank Johnson

Eleventh Edition

Pearson Education Limited
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Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 10: 1-292-02263-9
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02263-5

ISBN 10: 1-292-02263-9
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02263-5

Table of Contents

P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y

I

1. Group Dynamics

1

1David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

2. Group Goals, Social Interdependence, and Trust

49

49David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

3. Communication Within Groups

113

113David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

4. Experiential Learning

149

149David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

5. Leadership

173

173David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

6. Using Power

215

215David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

7. Decision Making

257

257David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

8. Controversy and Creativity

317

317David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

9. Managing Conflicts of Interest

371

371David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

10. Valuing Diversity

441

441David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

11. Cooperative Learning in the Classroom

477

477David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

12. Leading Growth and Counseling Groups

505

505David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

13. Team Development, Team Training

531

531David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

II

14. Epilogue

563

563David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

15. References

569

569David W. Johnson/Frank P. Johnson

623

623Index

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Group Dynamics

Basic concepts to Be covered in this chapter
In this chapter a number of concepts are defined and discussed. The major ones
are in the following list. Students should divide into pairs. Each pair is to (1) define
each concept, noting the page on which it is defined and discussed, and (2) en-
sure that both members understand its meaning. Then combine into groups of
four. Compare the answers of the two pairs. If there is disagreement, look up the
concept in the chapter and clarify it until all members agree on and understand
the definition.

ConCepts

1. Group
2. Group dynamics
3. Group effectiveness
4. Interdependence
5. Role
6. Norm
7. Status
8. Sequential-stage theory of group development
9. Recurring-phase theory of group development
10. Primary group
11. Reference group
12. Group processing
13. Action research
14. Kurt Lewin

From Chapter 1 of Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, Eleventh Edition. David W.
Johnson and Frank P. Johnson. Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Group Dynamics anD me

Although the scientific investigations of group work are but a few years
old, I don’t hesitate to predict that group work—that is, the handling
of human beings not as isolated individuals, but in the social setting
of groups—will soon be one of the most important theoretical and
practical fields. . . . There is no hope for creating a better world without
a deeper scientific insight into the . . . essentials of group life.

Kurt Lewin (1943)

Membership in groups is inevitable and universal. All day long we interact first in one
group and then in another. Our family life, our leisure time, our friendships, and our
careers are all filled with groups. We are born into a group called the family, and we
would not survive the first few years of our lives, the first few weeks, or even the first
few minutes without membership in this group. Within our family and peer groups, we
are socialized into ways of behaving and thinking, educated, and taught to have certain
perspectives on ourselves and our world. Our personal identity is derived from the way

Dynamics of Promotive Interaction

• Creating clear, operational, mutual goals members are committed to
• Communicating ideas and feelings accurately and clearly
• Distributed participation and leadership
• Equal access to power based on expertise, access to information
• Decision procedures � exibly matched with situational needs
• Controversy used to promote creative problem solving, critical thinking
• Con� icts are faced, encouraged, and resolved constructively.

Importance of Groups

• We are small-group beings
• We live in groups
• Groups and quality of life

Nature of Groups

• Group orientation
• Individual orientation

Types of Groups

• Pseudo
• Traditional
• Effective
• High performance

Group Structure

• Roles
• Norms

Stages of
Group Development

Sequential Stages

• Forming
• Norming
• Storming
• Performing
• Adjourning

Recurring Stages

• Task and emotional expressions
• Depend, pair, � ght or � ight
• Affection, inclusion, control

Basic Elements
of Effectiveness

• Positive interdependence
• Individual accountability
• Promotive interaction
• Social skills
• Group processing

Field of Group Dynamics

• Nature of group dynamics
• History of group dynamics
• Kurt Lewin
• Nature of book

Figure 1 Nature of group dynamics.

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Each of the following seven statements describes an action related to group effectiveness.
For each statement mark

5 if you always behave that way 2 if you seldom behave that way
4 if you frequently behave that way 1 if you never behave that way
3 if you occasionally behave that way

When i am a member oF a Group

____ 1. I clarify the group’s goals and ensure that the goals are formulated so that mem-
bers “sink or swim” together and are committed to achieving them.

____ 2. I facilitate communication by modeling good sending and receiving skills and en-
suring that communication among all group members is distributed and two-way.

____ 3. I provide leadership by taking whatever action is needed to help the group achieve
its goals and maintain good working relationships among members, and I encour-
age all other members to do the same.

____ 4. I use my expertise and knowledge to influence the other group members to
increase their efforts to achieve our mutual goals, and I let myself be influenced
by other members who are knowledgeable and have relevant expertise.

____ 5. I suggest different ways of making decisions (such as majority vote or consensus)
depending on (a) the availability of time and resources, (b) the size and seriousness
of the decision, and (c) the amount of member commitment needed to imple-
ment the decision.

____ 6. I advocate my views and challenge the views of others in order to create high-
quality, creative decisions.

____ 7. I face my conflicts with other group members and present the conflicts as prob-
lems to be jointly solved. If we are unable to do so, I request the help of other
group members to help us resolve the conflicts constructively.

____ total score

SELF-DIAGNoSIS

in which we are perceived and treated by other members of our groups. As humans we
have an inherent social nature: Our life is filled with groups from the moment of our
birth to the moment of our death.

Group dynamics is the area of social science that focuses on advancing knowledge
about the nature of group life. It is the scientific study of the nature of groups, behavior
in groups, group development, and the interrelations between groups and individuals,
other groups, and larger entities. Knowledge of group dynamics has the potential to
change the way we think about groups and, consequently, the way we function in
groups. The purposes of this text, therefore, are to help you understand the theory and
research on group dynamics and improve your own small-group skills.

As a starting point, Figure 1 provides a helpful summary of the nature
of group dynamics. The different concepts and terms listed in Figure 1 are
discussed throughout this chapter. After reviewing the information

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provided in Figure  1, think carefully about each of the statements listed in the
Self-Diagnosis on page 3. These statements are designed to make you think
concretely about your current understanding of groups and how you participate
in them.

Your solitarY activities

1. List everything you do in a typical day from the moment you wake up until the moment
you fall asleep.

2. Delete from your list all the activities you perform with groups of people and see what
is left.

3. Form a group of three and discuss the results.

eXerCise 1

Who am i?

We are all members of groups. If we are asked to describe who we are, most of us
include information about the groups to which we belong. “I’m a student at the University of
Minnesota,” “I’m a member of the hockey team,” “I’m a Johnson,” “I’m a male,” “I’m an
American,” and so forth. Membership in groups may be formal (“I’m an employee of IBM”),
aspiring (“I want to be rich”), marginal (“Sometimes I’m invited to Ralph’s parties, sometimes
I’m not”), voluntary (“I’m a Baptist”), and nonvoluntary (“I’m a female”). To a large extent,
our memberships define who we are as individuals.

1. We can all describe ourselves in many ways. Write ten different answers to the question
“Who am I?” on a sheet of paper. Answer in terms of groups you belong to, beliefs you
hold, and your roles and responsibilities.

2. Rank your answers from most important to your sense of self to least important to your
sense of self.

3. Form a group of three and share your self-descriptions. Count how many memberships are
represented in the triad. Discuss the role of groups in your view of who you are as a person.

4. Count how many group memberships are represented in the class.

eXerCise 2

What is a Group?

The definition of a group is controversial. The purpose of this exercise is to structure a critical
examination of the different definitions. The procedure is as follows:

eXerCise 3

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1. The class forms groups of seven members.
2. Each member receives a sheet containing one of the seven definitions that appear on the

following pages. Without interacting with the other group members, each member is to
proceed as follows:
a. Study his or her definition until it is thoroughly understood.
b. Plan how to teach the definition to the other members of the group.
c. Give three examples of groups that meet the criterion contained in the definition.
d. Give three examples of two or more people in close proximity who do not meet the

criterion contained in the definition.
e. Explain in what way(s) his or her group (doing this exercise) meets the criterion contained

in the definition.

Allow ten minutes for this phase of the exercise.

3. Each group meets to derive a single definition of the concept group. Up to twenty minutes
is allowed for this phase.

4. Each group reads its definition to the entire class.
5. If there is substantial disagreement, the class forms new groups (composed of one member

from each of the previous groups). The task of the new group is to arrive at one definition
of the concept group, each member representing the definition of his or her former group.

6. Each group reads its definition to the entire class.

What is a Group?

It takes two flints to make a fire.

Louisa May Alcott

In a bus trapped in a traffic jam, six passengers begin to talk to each other, comparing reac-
tions and sharing previous similar experiences. They start to develop a plan of action to
get the bus out of the heavy traffic. Is this a group? In Yellowstone National Park it is deep
winter. Several cross-country skiers glide through an isolated, snow-covered valley. They
are studying winter ecology and photography. Periodically they cluster around a profes-
sional photographer as he explains the ways the winter scenes can be photographed. The
vacationers admire and discuss the beautiful winter scenery as they photograph it. Is
this a group? Do groups exist at all? How do you tell when you are a member of a group?

In reading a book on group dynamics, you first need to understand what a group is.
We all know that groups exist, but confusion and disagreements abound when we try to
define the word group. Many social scientists think they know exactly what a group is.
The trouble is, they do not agree with one another. The reasoning behind seven of the
most common definitions of the word group is discussed in the following sections. No-
tice where and how the definitions are the same and where and how they are different.

Goals

A group may be defined as a number of individuals who join together to achieve a goal.
Groups exist for a reason. People join groups in order to achieve goals they are unable
to achieve by themselves. It is questionable whether a group can exist unless there is a

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mutual goal that its members are trying to achieve. Freeman, as early as 1936, pointed
out that people join groups in order to achieve common goals. Other social scientists
who have defined group this way are Mills and Deutsch:

To put it simply, they [small groups] are units composed of two or more persons who come
into contact for a purpose and who consider the contact meaningful (Mills, 1967, p. 2).

A psychological group exists (has unity) to the extent that the individuals composing it
perceive themselves as pursuing promotively interdependent goals (Deutsch, 1949a, p. 136).

interdependence

A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are interdependent in some
way. According to this definition, the individuals are not a group unless an event that
affects one of them affects them all. Social scientists who have defined group in this
way believe as follows:

A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree. As so defined, the term group refers to a class of
social entities having in common the property of interdependence among their constituent
members (Cartwright & Zander, 1968, p. 46).

By this term [group] we generally mean a set of individuals who share a common fate, that
is, who are interdependent in the sense that an event which affects one member is likely to
affect all (Fiedler, 1967, p. 6).

interpersonal interaction

A group may be defined as a number of individuals who are interacting with one an-
other. According to this definition, a group does not exist unless interaction occurs.
Social scientists who have defined group in this way state the following:

For a collection of individuals to be considered a group there must be some interaction (Hare,
1976, p. 4).

A group is a number of people in interaction with one another, and it is this interaction
process that distinguishes the group from an aggregate (Bonner, 1959, p. 4).

We mean by a group a number of persons who communicate with one another often over a
span of time, and who are few enough so that each person is able to communicate with all
the others, not at secondhand, through other people, but face-to-face (Homans, 1950, p. 1).

perception of membership

A group may be defined as a social unit consisting of two or more persons who perceive
themselves as belonging to a group. According to this definition, the persons are not a
group unless they perceive themselves to be part of a group. Social scientists who have
defined group in this way posit the following:

A small group is defined as any number of persons engaged in interaction with one another
in a single face-to-face meeting or series of such meetings, in which each member receives

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some impression or perception of each other member distinct enough so that he can, either
at the time or in later questioning, give some reaction to each of the others as an individual
person, even though it be only to recall that the other was present (Bales, 1950, p. 33).

We may define a social group as a unit consisting of a plural number of separate organisms
(agents) who have a collective perception of their unity and who have the ability to act and/
or are acting in a unitary manner toward their environment (M. Smith, 1945, p. 227).

structured relationships

A group may be defined as a collection of individuals whose interactions are structured
by a set of roles and norms. According to this definition, the individuals are not a group
unless role definitions and norms structure their interactions. Social scientists who
have defined group in this way are McDavid and Harari, and Sherif and Sherif:

A social-psychological group is an organized system of two or more individuals who are in-
terrelated so that the system performs some function, has a standard set of role relationships
among its members, and has a set of norms that regulate the function of the group and each
of its members (McDavid & Harari, 1968, p. 237).

mutual influence

A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who influence each other. Indi-
viduals are not a group unless they are affecting and being affected by each other and,
therefore, the primary defining characteristic of a group is interpersonal influence.

motivation

A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are trying to satisfy some
personal need through their joint association. According to this definition, the indi-
viduals are not a group unless they are motivated by some personal reason to be part
of a group. Individuals belong to the group in order to obtain rewards or to satisfy
personal needs. It is questionable that a group could exist unless its members’ needs
are satisfied by their membership. Social scientists who have defined group in this
way write as follows:

We define “group” as a collection of individuals whose existence as a collection is rewarding
to the individuals (Bass, 1960, p. 39).

The definition which seems most essential is that a group is a collection of organisms in
which the existence of all (in their given relationships) is necessary to the satisfaction of
certain individual needs in each (Cattell, 1951, p. 167).

Some of these definitions may be overly specific or may overlap. What each im-
plies, however, is that not every collection of people is a group. The Oxford English
Dictionary (1989) defines a group as a number of persons or things regarded as forming
a unit on account of any kind of mutual or common relation or classified together on
account of a common degree of similarity. On the basis of the preceding definitions,
a small group may be defined as two or more individuals in face-to-face interaction
who are aware of their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals,

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aware of their membership in the group, and aware of the others who belong to the
group. Though there may be some groups that do not fully fit this definition, the most
commonly recognized examples of groups do.

A distinction can be made between small and large groups. Whereas the definition
of a small group usually includes member interaction, a group may also involve large
numbers of members who have some common characteristic without actually meeting
one other (such as a reference group, discussed later in this chapter). A community can
be a large group, as can individuals with the same ethnic heritage.

Groups may be contrasted with aggregates. An aggregate is a collection of individu-
als who are present at the same time and place but who do not form a unit or have a
common degree of similarity. Individuals standing on a street corner, the members of
an audience at a play, and students listening to a lecture are aggregates, not groups.

Do Groups even exist?

Not everyone believes that groups exist. One of the more interesting social science
debates centers on the nature of groups. There are two contrasting positions: the group
orientation and the individual orientation. Those who support group orientation focus
on the group as a whole, as something separate from the individual group members. In
explaining the actions of group members, social scientists focus on the influences of
the group and the larger social system of which the group is a part. They believe that
when people come together as a group, they form a new social entity with its own rules,
attitudes, beliefs, and practices.

Following are the seven definitions of the concept group. Rank them from most accurate
(1) to least accurate (7). Write down your rationale for your ranking. Find a partner and
share your ranking and rationale, listen to his or her ranking and rationale, and coopera-
tively create a new, improved ranking and rationale. Then find another pair and repeat the
procedure in a group of four.

rank Definition

______ A group is a number of individuals who join together to achieve a goal.
______ A group is several individuals who are interdependent in some way.
______ A group is a number of individuals who are interacting with one another.
______ A group is a social unit consisting of two or more persons who perceive

themselves as belonging to a group.
______ A group is a collection of individuals whose interactions are structured

by a set of roles and norms.
______ A group is a collection of individuals who influence each other.
______ A group is a collection of individuals who are trying to satisfy some

personal need through their joint association.

WhAT IS ThE BEST WAy To DEFINE A GRoUP?

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Supporters of the individualist orientation, however, focus on the individual in
the group; without individuals, groups do not exist. In order to explain the functioning
of the group, social scientists study the attributes, cognitions, and personalities of the
group members. One of the first supporters of an individualist orientation, Floyd All-
port (1924), argued that groups do not think, feel, or act—only people do, and therefore
groups are not real entities and are not deserving of study. See the Group Orientation
versus Individualistic Orientation comparison table for more information about these
two positions.

Group Orientation Individualistic Orientation

The group orientation focuses on the group as a
whole. In explaining the actions of group members,
social scientists focus on the influences of the group
and the larger social systems of which it is part. Emile
Durkheim (1898, p. 104), arguing that groups were
entities different from individuals, stated, “If, then, we
begin with the individual, we shall be able to under-
stand nothing of what takes place in the group.” He
posited that small primary groups (small groups char-
acterized by face-to-face interaction, interdependence,
and strong group identification such as families and
very close friends) are the building blocks of society,
and he worked upward from this level to an analysis
of social systems in general. He was convinced that
a group mind or collective consciousness-dominated
individual will in many situations. Le Bon (1895)
believed that a group mind exists separate from the
minds of individual members. Cartwright and Zander
(1968) maintained that a group can be emotionally
healthy or pathological. Cattell (1951) described groups
as possessing different personalities. Lewin (1935),
as a Gestalt psychologist, noted that a group cannot
be understood by considering only the qualities and
characteristics of each member. When individuals
merge into a group, something new is created that
must be seen as an entity in itself. Changes in one
aspect of a group will necessarily lead to changes in
the other group features.

The individualistic orientation focuses on the
individual in the group. In order to explain the
functioning of the group, psychologists focus on
the attitudes, cognitions, and personalities of the
members. Floyd Allport (1924) argued that groups
do not think, feel, or act (only people do), and
therefore groups are not real and are not deserv-
ing of study. He said, “Groups have no nervous
systems, only individuals have nervous systems.”
To Allport, groups are no more than (a) shared sets
of values, ideas, thoughts, and habits that exist
simultaneously in the minds of several persons or
(b) the sum of the actions of each member taken
separately. His coup de grâce was his observation,
“You can’t stumble over a group.” Many social
scientists have agreed with Allport and have taken
a rather cavalier approach to the attributes that de-
termine whether a collection of people is a group.
Groups have also been defined on the basis of indi-
vidual perceptions of other members (Bales, 1950),
individual reward (Bass, 1960), and individual pur-
pose and meaning (Mills, 1967). Much of the re-
search on groups, furthermore, has used individual
members as the unit of analysis.

Solomon Asch (1952) adopted a middle ground by comparing groups to water. He
argued that in order to understand the properties of water, it is important to know the
characteristics of its elements, hydrogen and oxygen. This knowledge alone, however,
is not sufficient to understand water—the combination of hydrogen and oxygen must
be examined as a unique entity. Similarly, groups must be studied as unique entities,
even though it is important to know the characteristics of the individual members.

Although supporters of the individualistic orientation may argue that groups
are not important, evidence suggests that groups evoke stronger reactions than an

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individual engaging in the same behavior. Actions by groups and individuals elicit dif-
fering preferences for redress (Abelson, Dasgupta, Park, & Banaji, 1998). When individu-
als are perceived to be part of a cohesive group (as opposed to an aggregate of unrelated
individuals), observers express stereotypic judgments about the individuals and infer
that their behavior was shaped by the presence of others (Oakes & Turner, 1986; Oakes,
Turner, & Haslam, 1991; Wilder, 1977, 1978a). A misogynist statement made by an in-
dividual, for example, provokes a different reaction than a misogynist statement made
by a group. Social scientists of both the individualistic and group persuasions have
been productive in generating theories of group functioning and conducting research
to validate or disconfirm the theories.

Directions: Consider the following five sources of resistance to using small groups. Rate
yourself from 1 to 5 on each source.

1———————2———————3———————4———————5

Low middle high

Not a Concern of Mine Somewhat a Concern Consistently and Strongly
a Concern

Causes of missed opportunities to Capitalize on the power of Groups

______ belief that isolated work is the natural order of the world. Such a
myopic focus blinds individuals to the realization that no one person could
have built a cathedral, achieved America’s independence from England, or
created a supercomputer.

______ resistance to taking responsibility for others. Many individuals do not
easily (a) take responsibility for the performance of colleagues or (b) let
colleagues assume responsibility for their work.

______ Confusion about what makes groups work. Many individuals may not
know the difference between effective and ineffective groups.

______ Fear that they cannot use groups effectively. Not all groups work. …