i need someone to answer the questions

this would be nice to have, since it has an in memoriam for Steve
Tibbetts

Introduction to Criminology
Third Edition

I dedicate this book to my brothers Douglas Monroe and Jeffrey
Alan Schram.

—Pam Schram

I dedicate this book to my loving wife and best friend, Kim
Tibbetts. My true soulmate, for the last 20 years and forever.

—Steve Tibbetts

In Memoriam

After many years in academia, we are grateful for having the
colleague whom we also consider a dear friend, someone special
in our lives. Steve was one of those exceptional colleagues, a dear
friend, to me. I will miss our conversations. Those who knew
Steve appreciate that those conversations could range from how
much snow he was shoveling, to his thoughts on why SEC is so
wonderful (I’m Big 10), to his favorite episodes of and
Order. Steve always expressed such joy and pride when talking
about the special loves in his life—his wife, Kim; his daughter,
Rian; and his mom and dad, Jane and Steve.

Steve was one of those colleagues I could go to when I needed to
discuss a possible project, advice on how to handle a situation, or
just to “vent.” He always had a way of making things seem better.
He was known by many of us in the department to share odd or
strange crime stories. For me, he would enjoy sharing some crazy
cat news story. By the way, Steve did not really like cats, so you
can imagine the type of stories he would share.

Steve has made a significant, and lasting, impact in the field of
criminology in so many ways. But he has impacted so many
people, not just as a criminologist, but as Stephen Tibbetts. He

was a wonderful husband, father, son, and dear friend. I will miss
him.

—Pam Schram

Introduction to Criminology
Why Do They Do It?

Third Edition

Pamela J. Schram
California State University, San Bernardino

Stephen G. Tibbetts
Radford University

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Melbourne

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Schram, Pamela J., author. | Tibbetts, Stephen G., author.

Title: Introduction to criminology : why do they do it? / Pamela J. Schram, California State
University, San Bernardino, Stephen G. Tibbetts, Radford University.

Description: Third edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., [2021] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019034242 | ISBN 9781544375731 (paperback) | ISBN 9781544375755 (epub) |
ISBN 9781544375762 (epub) | ISBN 9781544375779 (pdf)

Subjects: LCSH: Criminology.

Classification: LCC HV6025 .S38 2020 | DDC 364—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2019034242

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https://lccn.loc.gov/2019034242

Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgments
3. About the Authors
4. Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology
5. Chapter 2: Measuring Crime
6. Chapter 3: The Classical School of Criminological Thought
7. Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research
8. Chapter 5: Early Positivism:Biological Theories of Crime
9. Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior

10. Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime
11. Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I:Early Development

and Strain Models of Crime
12. Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II:Social

Disorganization and Subcultures
13. Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime
14. Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of

Crime
15. Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime
16. Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives on Criminality
17. Chapter 14: White-Collar Crime, Organized Crime, and Cybercrime
18. Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Mass Murder, Terrorism, and Homeland

Security
19. Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime
20. Glossary
21. Notes
22. Index

Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology

• Case Study: The “Confidence Man”
Introduction
What Is a Crime?
What Are Criminology and Criminal Justice?
The Consensus and Conflict Perspectives of Crime
• Learning Check 1.1
The Criminal Justice System

Enforcement
Courts
Corrections
The Juvenile Justice System

• Learning Check 1.2
Criminological Theory
• Applying Theory to Crime: Motor-Vehicle Theft

Five Characteristics of Good Theories
• Learning Check 1.3

Three Requirements for Determining Causality
• Why Do They Do It? David and Louise Turpin

Theory Informs Policies and Programs
• Victimology

Victim Precipitation
The Incidence/Prevalence of Victimization
Child Abuse and Neglect
Compensation and Restitution
Victim Impact Statements

• Learning Check 1.4
Victim Rights Awareness

Conclusion
Key Terms
Discussion Questions

Resources
Chapter 2: Measuring Crime

• Case Study: September 11, 2001, Victims
Introduction
Data From Enforcement Agencies

Uniform Crime Reports
Historical Overview
The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program
Limitations

• Why Do They Do It? An Unusual DUI Offense; Dead Man’s
Parrot a Key Witness?; Lottery Winner Arrested; Burglar Can’t
Escape the Escape Room
• Learning Check 2.1

Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)
The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)

Data Collection
Limitations

Hate Crime Data
Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA)

Data From Victims of Crime: The National Crime Victimization
Survey (NCVS)
• Learning Check 2.2

Limitations
Comparing the NCVS With Uniform Crime Reports

Data From Self-Report Surveys
Monitoring the Future (MTF)
The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)
National Youth Survey—Family Study

Additional Approaches to Collecting Data
The National Prisoner (NPS) Program

• Applying Theory to Crime: Hate Crime
Spatial Analyses of Crime

• Learning Check 2.3
Conclusion
Key Terms
Discussion Questions

Resources
Chapter 3: The Classical School of Criminological Thought

• Case Study: Robert Seman, Jr.
Introduction
Pre-Classical Perspectives on Crime and Punishment
The Age of Enlightenment
• Learning Check 3.1
The Classical School of Criminology

Influences on Beccaria and His Writings
Beccaria’s Proposed Reforms and Ideas of Justice
Beccaria’s Ideas of the Death Penalty
Beccaria’s Concept of Deterrence and the Three Key
Elements of Punishment

Swiftness of Punishment
• Learning Check 3.2

Certainty of Punishment
Severity of Punishment
Beccaria’s Conceptualization of Specific and General
Deterrence
Summary of Beccaria’s Ideas and Influence on Policy

• Learning Check 3.3
The Impact of Beccaria’s Work on Other Theorists
The Neoclassical School of Criminology
• Why Do They Do It? The Harpe Brothers
• Applying Theory to Crime: Other Assaults (Simple)
The Decline of Classical/Neoclassical Theory
Policy Implications
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research
• Case Study: The Murder of Kristen Crowley
Introduction
The Rebirth of Deterrence Theory and Contemporary Research

The Four Waves of Modern Deterrence Research

Aggregate Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
Longitudinal Studies
Scenario/Vignette Studies

Formal Versus Informal Deterrence
Rational Choice Theory
• Learning Check 4.1
• Applying Theory to Crime: Driving Under the Influence
Routine Activities Theory

The Three Elements of Routine Activities Theory
Motivated Offender
Suitable Targets
Lack of Guardianship

Applications of Routine Activities Theory
The Minneapolis Hot Spots Study
Crime Mapping and Geographic Profiling
The Lifestyles Perspective

• Learning Check 4.2
Policy Implications
• Why Do They Do It? The Green River Killer
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 5: Early Positivism: Biological Theories of Crime
• Case Study: John Lotter, the “Boys Don’t Cry” Killer
Introduction
Early Biological Theories of Behavior

Craniometry
Phrenology
Physiognomy

Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
Lombroso’s Theory of Crime
Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and the Father of the
Positive School

• Learning Check 5.1
Policy Implications

• Why Do They Do It? Dr. Harold Shipman
• Learning Check 5.2
After Lombroso: The IQ-Testing Era

Goddard’s IQ Test
Policy Implications
Reexamining Intelligence
Body-Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping

• Applying Theory to Crime: Burglary
• Learning Check 5.3
• Learning Check 5.4
Policy Implications
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior
• Case Study: The Spahalski Brothers
Introduction
Nature Versus Nurture: Studies Examining the Influence of
Genetics and Environment

Family Studies
Twin Studies

• Learning Check 6.1
Adoption Studies
Twins Separated at Birth

• Learning Check 6.2
Cytogenetic Studies: The XYY Factor
Hormones and Neurotransmitters: Chemicals That Determine
Criminal Behavior
• Applying Theory to Crime: Aggravated Assault
Brain Injuries
• Learning Check 6.3
Central Versus Autonomic Nervous System Activity
• Why Do They Do It? Charles Whitman

• Learning Check 6.4
Biosocial Approaches to Explaining Criminal Behavior

Behavioral Genetics Studies
Diet/Nutrition
Toxins

• Case Study Revisited: The Spahalski Brothers
Policy Implications
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime
• Case Study: Joel Michael Guy, Jr.
Introduction
Early Psychological Theorizing Regarding Criminal Behavior

Freud’s Model of the Psyche and Implications for Criminal
Behavior
Hans Eysenck: Theory of Crime and Personality
rence Kohlberg: Moral Development

Heinz’s Dilemma
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory

Modern Psychological Perspectives of Criminality
IQ and Criminal Behavior

• Example Case History: Derek B.
• Learning Check 7.1

James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein: Crime and
Human Nature

• Applying Theory to Crime: Rape
Psychopathy and Crime

Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System
• Learning Check 7.2

Treatment
• Why Do They Do It? Ariel Castro

Mental-Health Courts
The Insanity Defense

The M’Naghten Rule

The Irresistible-Impulse Test
The Durham Rule
The American Institute’s Model Penal Code

Policy Implications
• Learning Check 7.3
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I: Early Development
and Strain Models of Crime

• Case Study: The Black-Binder Bandit
Introduction
Early European Theorists of Social Structure: Comte, Guerry, and
Quetelet
Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
• Learning Check 8.1
• Learning Check 8.2
Merton’s Strain Theory

Cultural Context and Assumptions of Strain Theory
Merton’s Concept of Anomie and Strain
Adaptations to Strain

• Learning Check 8.3
Evidence and Criticisms of Merton’s Strain Theory

Variations of Merton’s Strain Theory
Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration and Gang
Formation
Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity

General Strain Theory
• Why Do They Do It? Christopher Dorner
• Learning Check 8.4
Summary of Strain Theories
• Why Do They Do It? Gang Lu
• Applying Theory to Crime: Bank Robbery
Policy Implications
Conclusion

Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II: Social
Disorganization and Subcultures

• Case Study: Fraternity Members Charged With Engaging in
Alcohol Enemas
Introduction
The Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology

Cultural Context: Chicago in the 1800s and Early 1900s
Ecological Principles in City Growth and Concentric Circles
Shaw and McKay’s Theory of Social Disorganization
• Learning Check 9.1
Reactions and Research

• Applying Theory to Crime: Stalking
Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime

Early Theoretical Developments and Research in
Cultural/Subcultural Theory

• Learning Check 9.2
Disparities of Race in Regard to Subcultural Theories of
Crime
Criticism

Policy Implications
• Why Do They Do It? Whitey Bulger
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime
• Case Study: The Bogles
Introduction
Learning Theories

Differential Association Theory
Elements of Differential Association Theory
Classical Conditioning

Reactions to Differential Association Theory
Glaser’s Concept of Differential Identification

• Learning Check 10.1
Differential Reinforcement Theory

Elements
Propositions

Psychological Learning Models
Operant Conditioning

• Applying Theory to Crime: Murder
Bandura’s Theory of Imitation/Modeling
Reactions to Differential Reinforcement Theory
Neutralization Theory

Techniques of Neutralization
• Learning Check 10.2

Reactions to Neutralization Theory
Control Theories

Thomas Hobbes’s Social Contract
Émile Durkheim’s Idea of Collective Conscience
Freud’s Concept of the Id and Superego
Early Social Control Theories of Crime

Reiss’s Control Theory
Toby’s Concept of Stake in Conformity
Nye’s Control Theory
Reckless’s Containment Theory

Modern Social Control Theories of Crime
Matza’s Drift Theory
Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory

Integrated Social Control Theories
Tittle’s Control-Balance Theory
Hagan’s Power-Control Theory

A General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control
Psychological Aspects
Physiological Aspects

• Learning Check 10.3
Policy Implications
• Why Do They Do It? Jesse Pomeroy
Conclusion

Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of
Crime

• Case Study: The Flint Water Crisis
Introduction
Labeling Theory

Foundation
Frank Tannenbaum: The Dramatization of Evil
Edwin M. Lemert: Primary and Secondary Deviance
Howard S. Becker: The Dimensions of Deviance
Edwin M. Schur: Defining Deviance

Basic Assumptions
• Learning Check 11.1

Research
• Why Do They Do It? The Murder of Dawn Hamilton

Critiques
Conflict Perspectives
• Applying Theory to Crime: Larceny-Theft

Conservative (Pluralist) Conflict Perspectives
George Vold: Group Conflict Theory
Austin Turk: The Power to Define Criminal Behavior
Richard Quinney: The Social Reality of Crime

• Learning Check 11.2
Radical Conflict Perspectives

Marxist Criminology
William Chambliss and Robert Seidman on the U.S.
Criminal Justice System

Additional Explanations of Crime Using a Marxist
Framework

Colvin and Pauly’s Integrated Structural-Marxist
Theory
Herman and Julia Siegel Schwendinger on Adolescent
Subcultures
Steven Spitzer on Problem Populations

• Learning Check 11.3
Research
Critiques

Additional Critical Theories
Peacemaking Criminology
The Restorative Justice Perspective
Left Realism

Policy Implications
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime
• Case Study: Gertrude Baniszewski
Introduction
A Brief History of Feminism in the United States

Key Terms
Feminist Perspectives on Gender
• Learning Check 12.1

The Traditional or Conservative Perspective
Liberal Feminism
Radical Feminism
Marxist and Socialist Feminism
Postmodern Feminism

• Learning Check 12.2
Additional Feminist Perspectives

Traditional Theories of Female Crime
Cesare Lombroso: Physical Attributes of Female Offenders
William I. Thomas: The Biology of Female Offending
Sigmund Freud: Female Inferiority
Otto Pollak: Hidden Female Criminality

• Learning Check 12.3
Feminist Critiques of Previous Studies of Women and Crime

The Liberation Thesis
• Applying Theory to Crime: Female Sex Offenders
Power-Control Theory

Feminist Perspectives on Crime and Criminal Behavior
• Why Do They Do It? Lavinia Fisher

Objectivity and Subjectivity
Qualitative “Versus” Quantitative Analyses
Feminist Criminology

Critiques of Feminist Theories
• Learning Check 12.4
Policies Based on Feminist Theories of Crime
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives on Criminality
• Case Study: The Teen Burglar
Introduction
Basic Concepts and Early Developmental Theory
Antidevelopmental Theory: Low-Self-Control Theory
• Learning Check 13.1
Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model
Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy
• Why Do They Do It? Henry Earl
Thornberry’s Interactional Model of Offending
Applying Theory to Crime: Arson

Case Study
Empirical Evidence

• Learning Check 13.2
Policy Implications
Conclusion
Summary of Theories
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 14: White-Collar Crime, Organized Crime, and Cybercrime
• Case Study: William T. Walters
Introduction
White-Collar Crime

Definitions and History
• Learning Check 14.1

Incidence and Impact on Society
Economic Costs

• Why Do They Do It? Enron
Physical Costs
Breakdown in Social Fabric
Types of White-Collar Crime

Crimes Against the Environment
• Learning Check 14.2

Labor Violations
Theoretical Explanations

• Applying Theory to Crime: White-Collar Crime
Organized Crime

Definition
The Historical Context of Organized Crime in the United
States
Types of Criminal Organization

The Mafia
Outlaw Motorcyle Gangs
Prison Gangs
Urban Street Gangs
Transnational Organized Crime

Criminal Justice Responses
The Chicago Crime Commission
The Wickersham Commission
The Kefauver Committee
The McClellan Committee
The President’s Commission on Enforcement and
the Administration of Justice
The Organized Crime Control Act of 1970
The President’s Commission on Organized Crime

• Learning Check 14.3
Theoretical Explanations

Cybercrime
Definition
Types

Hacking
Identity Theft
Child Pornography
Internet Fraud
Cyberstalking

Criminal Justice Responses
The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1984
The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998
The Child Online Protection Act of 1998
The Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986
Executive Order 13694: Blocking the Property of
Certain Persons Engaging in Significant Malicious
Cyber-Enabled Activities
The Strengthening State and Local Cyber Crime
Fighting Act of 2017

Theoretical Explanations
• Learning Check 14.4
Conclusion
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Mass Murder, Terrorism, and Homeland
Security

• Case Study: The Poway Synagogue Shooting
Introduction
Hate Crimes

Definition
Hate Groups
Anti-Hate-Crime Legislation

The Hate Crime Act of 1990
The Violent Crime Control and Enforcement Act
of 1994
The Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996
The Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997
The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes
Prevention Act of 2009

Model State Legislation: Hate Crimes/Violence Against
People Experiencing Homelessness

Theoretical Explanations of Hate Crimes
• Why Do They Do It? The Murder of Matthew Shepard
• Learning Check 15.1
Multicide

Categories of Mass Killers
School Attacks
Disparity in Rates of Committing Multicide Across Race and
Religious Ideology

Terrorism
Definition
Typologies
Extent
Historical Context

The French Revolution
Late-19th-Century and Early-20th-Century Terrorism
Contemporary Terrorism

• Applying Theory to Crime: Terrorism
Current Context

Organizational Networks
Financial Support
The Influence of the Media

Domestic Terrorism
Theoretical Explanations

• Learning Check 15.2
Homeland Security

Origins
Definition
The Homeland Security Organizational Network
Agencies Responsible for Homeland Security

The Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS)
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
The Secret Service
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
The Coast Guard

Bureaucratic Problems and Solutions
Issues Related to Civil Liberties

The Torture Debate
Human Rights
The Constitution
The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001

• Learning Check 15.3
Policy Implications
Conclusion
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime
• Case Study: Kenneth Saltzman
Introduction
Depressants

Alcohol
• Diagnosing Alcohol Problems

Barbiturates
Tranquilizers (Including Benzodiazepines)

Narcotics
Morphine
Heroin
Other Synthetic Narcotics

Stimulants
Cocaine
Amphetamine
Methamphetamine

Other Commonly Abused Drugs
Cannabis and Marijuana
Steroids
Inhalants
Hallucinogens

• Learning Check 16.1
Trends of Drug Use

The Early History of Cocaine and Opioid Addiction
Prohibition Era

“Reefer Madness”
The 1960s and the Baby Boomers
The “War on Drugs” Era
Current Trends Regarding Drug Use

• Why Do They Do It? Ryan Thomas Haight
The Link Between Drugs and Crime
• Learning Check 16.2
Modern Policies Related to Reducing Drug Use

Interdiction Strategies
Eradication Strategies
Drug Courts
Maintenance and Decriminalization
Harm Reduction

• Applying Theory to Crime: Drug Selling/Trafficking and Drug
Use

Legislation and Litigation
• Learning Check 16.3
Policy Recommendations
• Why Do They Do It? Pablo Escobar
Conclusion
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Resources

Glossary
Notes
Index

Preface

If you are considering a career in any aspect of criminal justice, and you
want to know more about the motivations and socio-psychological makeup
of serious offenders, then this book is for you! Introduction to Criminology:
Why Do They Do It? applies the dominant theories in the existing
criminological literature as to why people commit crimes. In addition, we
examine many recent (as well as many hypothetical) examples of serious
crimes, and we demonstrate applications of theory as to why the offenders
did what they did. While other textbooks do a decent job in discussing the
basic theories, as well as exploring the various types of crime, our book
integrates various street crimes within each chapter and applies theories that
are appropriate in explaining such criminal activity. This is extremely
important, because most instructors never get to the latter typology chapters
in a given semester or term. So our approach is to incorporate them into the
theoretical chapters in which they apply directly to the theories presented.

Our specific examples and true stories, such as notable serial killings and
other recent crimes, in each chapter, as well as our use of established
theoretical models to explain the offenses, is another primary distinction of
this book. Obviously, this book is meant to be central to an introductory
course in criminology, but due to the emphasis on applied theoretical
explanations, it is also appropriate for higher-level undergraduate and
graduate courses in criminological theory or as a reference for anyone in the
field of criminal justice. In it, we have integrated true crimes (and some
hypothetical examples) both on a general level, such as in the Applying
Crime to Theory sections, and more specifically—in the Why Do They Do
It? sections, which often involve serial killings, mass murderers, or other
notorious examples of offenders/offending.

The subtitle of our book, “Why Do They Do It?” relates to our theme. Our
goal in writing this book was to apply established theories of crime, which
are often seen as abstract and hypothetical, to real crimes that have
occurred, as well as to hypothetical ones that are quite likely to occur. To
this end, we explore the various reasons for offending or the “why they do

it” in various cases, from the first documented serial killers in the United
States—the Harpe Brothers in the late 18th century—to California cop-
killer/spree-killer Christopher Dorner in 2013 and John T. Earnest, who
massacred worshippers in a Poway, California, synagogue in 2019.
Importantly, throughout these discussions of actual crimes we will apply
theories. As you will see, some of the theories that applied to the earliest
crimes seem to apply to the most modern crimes as well.

Unlike other authors in this field, we chose not to include separate chapters
on violent or property crimes, because we have worked those into and
applied them to the theories explored in each chapter. We strongly believe
that by integrating discussions of such serious crimes—all of the FBI Index
offenses of murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor-
vehicle theft, larceny, and arson, as well as non-Index crimes, such as
simple assault and driving under the influence—into the theoretical chapters
provides the best exploration of why people commit such offenses. And the
flip side is good as well; by discussing offenses together with theories, we
show you how to apply theories toward explaining other instances of
criminal behavior. Again, this goes back to our theme of “why do they do
it?” It demonstrates our goal: apply the appropriate theories for the specific
crime.

Additionally, our book is different from other textbooks in that we don’t
have an overwhelming amount of sidebars and special sections that diverge
from the topic at hand. We limited the special sections to a few basic
categories, largely based on the goal of this text and mostly dedicated to
applying criminological theory to actual offenses or true cases.

We feature a separate chapter on feminist criminology. Given that over half
of Americans are female, and there has been a recent increase in certain
crimes (e.g., simple assault) by women, this is an important addition to the
study of crime. Furthermore, while men are still responsible for the vast
majority of violent acts—murder, robbery, aggravated assault—in all
societies, the pursuit of understanding why women commit so much less
violence may have significant implications for reducing violence by men.

Another distinctive aspect of this book is that we devoted separate chapters
to the developmental/life-course perspective, as well as modern biosocial

approaches regarding propensities to commit crime. These two
frameworks/perspectives have become some of the most accepted and valid
frameworks for explaining criminal behavior. A recent survey of key
criminologists in the field showed that the developmental/life-course
perspective ranked as the second most accepted perspective in explaining
chronic offending (and the biosocial perspective ranked number 6, out of
dozens of theories), yet most other textbooks do not cover this perspective
as widely or in depth as we do. The developmental/life-course perspective,
as well as the biosocial perspective, is “cutting edge” right now, and so we
highlight the importance of these theoretical models, as well as the recent
empirical studies in those areas.

Our text does follow a somewhat traditional format in that it presents
theories chronologically from the Classical School to the Positive School …