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Research Journal

Clothing and Textiles

DOI: 10.1177/0887302X06293066
2006; 24; 335 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal

Jaehee Jung
Effect of Mood and Body Image

Media Influence: Pre- and Postexposure of College Women to Media Images and the

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Media Influence: Pre- and Postexposure of College Women
to Media Images and the Effect of Mood and Body Image
Jaehee Jung
University of Delaware
Abstract

This study employs a repeated measures design to assess the effects of exposure to attractive models in
the media on women’s mood and body image. One hundred six college women participants were
divided into two groups (high- vs. low-appearance self-schema), and their mood and body image
were measured twice with an interval of 4 weeks. No significant effects of exposure to media images
were noticed in women’s body image scores. However, exposure to media images had an influence on
women’s mood by decreasing positive mood and elevating anxiety and depression from preexposure to
postexposure. In both pre- and postexposure conditions, women with high-appearance self-schema
exhibited significantly greater negative mood and lower body dissatisfaction and appearance
evaluation than did those with low-appearance self-schema. This study suggests that media images
of thinness and attractiveness may negatively affect college women’s mood.
Key Words

Appearance Self-Schema, Body Image, Media Image, Mood, Repeated Measures
THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA IMAGES
ON MOOD AND BODY IMAGE

The media play an important role in promoting
and reflecting the current mainstream culture’s
standards for ideal beauty, particularly for women.
Among the various media, much attention has
been given to the advertising industry for their
negative influence on women because advertised
models are nearly perfect in their body shape and
size as well as physical attractiveness. This is
especially true for advertisements of beauty-
enhancing products (e.g., cosmetics and exercise
equipment) and services (e.g., dieting and weight
loss programs). Although the primary objective of
advertisements is to create product awareness and
to encourage product purchase, advertisers may
falsely encourage women to believe these images
achievable and real. The adverse impact of media
images can be enormous to those who strive for
that perfection, even though it guarantees that

they may never be able to reach those media
standards, and as a result, this impact may cause a
sense of failure, shame, and guilt (e.g., Grubb,
Sellers, & Waligroski, 1993; Stice, Schupak-
Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994). Other adverse
effects of exposure to media images have been
associated with body image issues, including body
dissatisfaction (e.g., Hargreaves & Tiggemann,
2003; Posavac, Posavac, & Posavac, 1998) and
eating disorders (e.g., Harrison & Cantor, 1997;
Stice et al., 1994). Negative body image attitudes
and behaviors caused by media influences are not
only problems affecting individual well-being but
also social problems affecting the vast majority of
people within a society. Should media be
responsible when women measure themselves
against unattainable images and develop negative
body images and perceptions of self? Do media
actually powerfully influence women’s body
images? Should companies stop advertising
unrealistic images in marketing their products for

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ethical reasons? The answer may not be simple
because industry representatives have to balance
their profit making with ethical decision making.
Yet, health and body image issues raise serious
concerns about the media influence.

Body image refers to our attitudes about our own
body, particularly its size, shape, and attractiveness
(Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). Body image
encompasses personal evaluations (e.g., body
satisfaction-dissatisfaction) and associated
emotions regarding physical attributes, as well as
investment in appearance (e.g., cognitive and
behavioral importance one places on his or her
own appearance; Cash, 1994). Although a number
of studies have examined the effects of media on
body image, most of the studies were designed to
study the effects based on a between-subjects
design focusing on the treatment of stimuli
conditions (e.g., thin models vs. obese models,
Ogden & Mundray, 1996; idealized images vs.
neutral images, Posavac et al., 1998). It is rare to
find a study that employs a repeated measures
design in assessing women’s body image and
particularly mood as the effects of media
exposure. Among these few studies, Durkin and
Paxton (2002) examined negative effects of
viewing idealized female media images in
adolescent girls using a between-subjects factor,
the stimuli condition, and a within-subjects factor,
body image measures, with an interval of 1 week.
Another study measured body dissatisfaction of
adolescents in response to TV commercials
containing idealized, thin female images before,
immediately following, and 15 minutes after
commercial viewing (Hargreaves & Tiggemann,
2003).

According to the findings of a study by Jung and
Lennon (2003), simple exposure to media images
was not a significant factor in assessments of
women’s mood and body image but appearance
self-schema—that is, the placing of cognitive
importance on appearance in the evaluation of the
self—was a significant factor in assessments of
women’s mood and body image. In their study, the
participants were divided into two groups (high-
vs. low-appearance self-schema), and half of each

group was exposed to attractive media images,
whereas the other half was not exposed to any
images. It was assumed that participants did not
compare themselves to media images (as they
evaluated their mood and body images), or if they
did, it did not significantly affect responses to
dependent variables. Without clear measures of
whether participants compared themselves to
media images and whether such exposure
influenced the scores on mood and body image, it
would be difficult to generalize from the results of
a study that measures the effect of the exposure to
attractive images on mood and body image. To
measure any changes in mood and body image
induced by viewing attractive media images, it
would be important to measure individual changes
(also known as within-subjects changes) from
before to after being exposed to those images. For
that reason, the present study used repeated
measures to obtain self-ratings of mood and body
image of college women, preexposure and
postexposure to attractive female models in the
media. This study employs a test-retest design that
looks at individuals longitudinally over a short
span of time and variables of measures were what
have repeated. Thus, the purpose of this study was
to extend initial research of Jung and Lennon
(2003) by employing a repeated measures design
to assess the effects of exposure to magazine
advertisements with physically attractive models
on women’s mood and body image.

THE RELATED LITERATURE

Social Comparison and Media Images

The mechanism by which body image and mood
are influenced by the media can be explained
through social comparison theory (Festinger,
1954). This theory was developed to explain the
process by which individuals monitor and evaluate
their abilities and opinions in relation to others.
However, the theory has been expanded to include
evaluations of appearance (e.g., Lin & Kulik, 2002;
Richins, 1991). According to this theory, when
there are no objective criteria on which to base the
evaluation, people evaluate themselves by

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comparing with others (Festinger, 1954). As a
result of their comparison of themselves with
others, people tend to experience satisfaction
(based on downward comparisons, i.e., the
comparison of themselves with others who are
seen to be inferior) or dissatisfaction (based on
upward comparisons, i.e., the comparison of
themselves with others who are seen as superior).
Self-satisfaction based on downward comparisons
is likely to bring positive emotions such as greater
self-confidence, whereas dissatisfaction with
oneself as a result of upward comparisons is
likely to bring negative emotions such as lack of
self-confidence. For example, Lin and Kulik
(2002) found that in a mock dating scenario, in
which female participants were compared with
another female as a possible date with a male
participant, female participants who were shown a
photo of a slender woman had lower confidence
and higher anxiety. On the other hand, exposure to
a photo of an overweight woman elevated
participants’ body satisfaction and confidence.

Magazine advertisements are a pervasive source of
social comparison. Levine, Smolak, and Hayden
(1994) reported that 70% of the teenage women
who regularly read fashion magazines considered
the magazines an important source of beauty and
fitness information. The importance of physical
attractiveness prompts many women to compare
themselves with the images of physical perfection
and thinness found in advertising (e.g., Harrison &
Cantor, 1997; Martin & Gentry, 1997). Because it is
not always possible to compare oneself with others
selectively, daily exposure to media images may
encourage people to compare themselves to certain
images with regard to their own appearances or
attractiveness and use those images as reference
points in evaluating their own bodies. In fact,
Richins (1991) found that college women who
compared themselves to idealized media images
had elevated standards of personal attractiveness
and lower satisfaction with their own
attractiveness. Thus, most of the women in the
present study are expected to perceive a
discrepancy between their bodies and that of the
media standard when they compare their bodies
with those of fashion models.

Media Influences on Mood and Body Image

Portrayal of the female body as an object of desire
in the media is likely to socialize women as objects
to be looked at and evaluated, and by not being as
perfect as the media images, women are likely to
feel shame and anxiety. Over the years, researchers
have documented the harmful influence of
idealized media images. For instance, exposure to
idealized media images, compared to exposure to
average models or pictures with no models, has
resulted in negative feelings of unhappiness, guilt,
shame, depression, and lack of confidence (Stice &
Shaw, 1994).

Most studies, based primarily on experimental
methods, have shown mixed results regarding the
media influence on women’s mood and body
image. Some experiments showed that
comparisons with the idealized images in
advertising generate negative feelings, including
frustration, resentment, anxiety, depression, and
anger (e.g., Bower, 2001; Pinhas, Toner, Ali,
Garfinkel, & Stuckless, 1999). Also, the discrepancy
between the actual body size of college-aged
women and the thin ideal in the media has been
positively correlated with increased body
dissatisfaction (e.g., Grogan, Williams, & Corner,
1996; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Posavac et al.,
1998). Other studies have found little to no effect
of media images on body image. For example,
there was no significant difference in body
perception between participants who viewed the
thin models and those who viewed control images
(Martin & Kennedy, 1993). Similarly, Cusumano
and Thompson (1997) found no relationship
between media exposure and body dissatisfaction.
Perhaps differences in methodology (e.g., posttest
only, pretest and posttest, repeated measures) and
stimuli conditions (e.g., media type, image type,
number of stimuli presented) have generated
mixed results regarding the media influence on
women’s mood and body image.

Self-Schema Theory

Assuming that individual differences could
influence the effects of media images, few

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researchers have made an effort to take individual
factors (e.g., self-esteem, sociocultural awareness
and internalization of appearance, appearance
self-schema) into account. For example, the
extent to which women are satisfied or
dissatisfied with their bodies depended on their
level of appearance self-schema (Jung & Lennon,
2003). Increased negative mood and lower body
image scores were obtained from women with
high-appearance self-schema than from those
with low-appearance self-schema (Jung &
Lennon, 2003).

A schema is a cognitive structure that represents
knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus
(Wyer, 1980). Schema theory holds that our
perceptions of the world reflect an interplay
between “what is really out there” (stimulus
variables) and what we bring to the perception
situation (perceiver variables; Fiske & Taylor,
1991). As structured knowledge that we bring to
everyday perceptions, schemas emphasize our
active constructions of reality. The schema then
structures what is perceived and remembered.
Self-schemas are cognitive-affective structures that
represent one’s experience in a given domain, such
as the domain of attractiveness or the domain of
intelligence. Domains along which we have clear
self-conceptions are those along which we are
self-schematic, whereas domains along which we
are less clear are those along which we are
aschematic (Markus, 1977). Schematics are
invested in, involved with, and/or concerned about
a particular domain (Fiske & Taylor, 1991).
Self-schemas allow one to selectively attend to
information of greater relative importance, while
ignoring other information (Markus, 1977). Thus,
individuals with well-defined appearance
self-schemas are likely to attend to appearance
information, yet those without well-defined
appearance self-schemas are likely to ignore such
information. However, because no impact of the
media was found in Jung and Lennon’s (2003)
study, they could not conclude whether attractive
media images are more salient to women with
high-appearance self-schema than to those with
low-appearance self-schema.

Hypotheses

According to the social comparison theory,
comparisons occur among similar individuals for
the purpose of self-evaluation, as similar others
are expected to provide more accurate
information than those who are very different
from the evaluators (Festinger, 1954).
Nonetheless, what Festinger meant by similar
others is not clear (in terms of specific attributes
being evaluated, or characteristics of a person
being evaluated, e.g., gender, age, race). Wood
(1989) suggested that self-evaluation by means of
comparison may occur among dissimilar
individuals who feel either superior (upward) or
inferior to themselves (downward comparisons)
but who share similar personal characteristics. For
example, when an individual does not know how
good or bad his or her own score is on a test, he
or she may try to compare his or her score with
those at the highest and lowest levels (dissimilar
in the dimension of evaluation). However, one is
likely to compare himself or herself with those
who are of the same gender, age, or level of
education (similar in personal characteristics)
rather than to compare with those who are
different from oneself.

In this study, media images are dissimilar others in
terms of levels of attractiveness (superior to
themselves for most women) but are similar others
in terms of gender and age. Thus, ideally, upward
social comparisons are likely to occur among
young women in regard to attractiveness or
appearance as a result of being exposed to these
media images. As a result of upward social
comparisons, women are expected to be
dissatisfied with their bodies, and exposure to
attractive images is likely to trigger negative
moods, particularly for those who are appearance
schematic (those with high-appearance self-
schema). Therefore, it is important to examine
individual differences based on repeated measures
over two times (pretest and posttest for the
experimental treatment, i.e., exposure to attractive
female models) so that any changes in mood and
body image are due to exposure to idealized media

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images. In repeated measures, within participants,
differences in mood and body image can be
compared after their exposure to attractive media
images within each group of appearance self-
schema (high- vs. low-appearance self-schema).
Based on the arguments of this study, the
following three hypotheses were formulated:

Hypothesis 1: Women who have high-appearance self-
schema will exhibit greater negative mood and
lower body image scores than those who have
low-appearance self-schema.

Hypothesis 2: Regardless of the level of appearance
self-schema, women will exhibit greater negative
mood and lower body image scores as a result of
exposure to ads with attractive female models.

Hypothesis 3: Women with high-appearance
self-schema will exhibit the most negative mood
and lowest body image scores after exposure to
ads with attractive female models.

METHOD

Participants

A convenience sample of college women (ages
18-23) recruited from a midwestern university
and a mid-Atlantic university participated in two
experimental sessions (an initial session and a
follow-up session 4 weeks later). By volunteering
for this study, participants received either a small
cash reward or extra credit. The final sample for
data analysis consisted of 106 participants who
attended both sessions and completed all the items
on the questionnaire. The majority of participants
were European Americans (n = 95), and the rest
were of various ethnic backgrounds (2 African
Americans, 2 Asian Americans, 4 Hispanic
Americans, 3 others).

Stimuli

Stimuli for the study were scanned color
advertisements about fashion products (e.g.,
clothing, cosmetics) containing full body images
of female models taken from popular fashion
magazines (e.g., Glamour, Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar).
The basis for selection was that advertisements

clearly depicted the current media standard of
female ideal beauty such as youthful, thin, and
physically attractive. Because mainstream media
images often feature European Americans, a pool
of more than 60 Caucasian models was preselected
by the experimenter. Selected images were then
rated by a group of female students for
attractiveness based on a 7-point Likert-type scale
(1 = not attractive at all, 7 = very attractive). On
the basis of the rating, a total of 12 images (the
average rating being 6.5) were selected for this
study and prepared as slide photos.

Procedure and Measures

This study was conducted to examine the effect of
appearance self-schema and exposure to attractive
media images based on repeated measures over
two times (preexposure and postexposure of
women to attractive female models). Participants
were asked to participate in two sessions. The
researcher conducted two sessions with an interval
of 4 weeks between sessions so that (a) their
responses would not be affected by fatigue because
of long questionnaires and (b) any effects assessed
in the follow-up session would not be due to
priming effects from the initial questionnaire (i.e.,
carryover effects from the initial session). In the
initial session, a self-report questionnaire was
administered to participants, which included
demographic questions and the standardized
instruments measuring appearance self-schema,
mood, and body image. The second session was
intentionally described as a combination of two
unrelated investigations that were being conducted
together for the researcher’s convenience. The first
part of the second session examined the
effectiveness of ads (e.g., the level of interest and
the eye-catching aspect), and the second part was a
survey of the emotions and opinions of college
students. Participants were exposed to
advertisements containing attractive images in 12
slide photos. Each slide was shown for
approximately 10 seconds. Participants were given
a filler task in which they evaluated the
effectiveness of ads before they completed
questions on the dependent measures. The filler
task also served as a way to make sure participants

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would look carefully at the images. Dependent
measures for the second session consisted of the
same set of instruments as for the first session
except for the measure of appearance self-schema.

Appearance self-schema, mood, and body image
were the three main variables considered in this
study. The Appearance Schemas Inventory (ASI;
Cash & Labarge, 1996), originally developed using
college-age samples, was used to measure
participants’ level of appearance self-schema as an
independent variable. The standard 14-item
questionnaire consisted of items that assessed the
importance, self-relevance, and centrality of
appearance in one’s life (e.g., “My appearance is
responsible for much of what has happened to me
in my life”). A previous study demonstrated the
internal consistency of the ASI as .82 and its 1-
month test-retest reliability as .71 for college
women (Cash, 1992). Because the median split
represented a statistically reasonable cutoff point,1

a median split (38) was used to create groups high
(N = 55) and low (N = 51) in levels of appearance
self-schema. Internal consistency (Cronbach’s
alpha) for the ASI was .84 in this sample.

As a dependent variable for repeated measures,
mood included measures of the Joy and Distress
subscales of the Differential Emotions Scale (Izard,
1972) and the Visual Analogue Scales (VAS-
Anxiety, VAS-Depression, and VAS-Anger;
Heinberg & Thompson 1995). The Joy scale, a
reliable instrument for measuring positive mood
(.80; Izard, 1972), was used to ask participants to
rate the adjectives happy, joyful, and delighted on a
5-point scale (1 = not at all, 5 = very strongly). The
Distress scale (with a reliability of .90; Izard, 1972)
was used to assess participants’ negative mood by
asking them to rate the adjectives discouraged, sad,
and downhearted on a 5-point scale. The
reliabilities for the Joy and Distress scales were .83
and .75, respectively, in this study. The VASs are
not based on numerical rating scales but on a 100
mm line (anchored with no anxiety or extreme

anxiety, no depression or extreme depression, etc.) in
which individuals were asked to use a vertical slash
to reflect their current mood or body satisfaction
at the time. In support of the convergent validity
of VAS measures of anxiety, depression, and anger,
Heinberg and Thompson (1995) found high
correlations between VAS measures of these
variables and tension/anxiety,
depression/dejection, and anger/hostility of the
profile of mood states (McNair, Lorr, &
Droppleman, 1971). Because each of the VAS
measures is based on a single line to indicate
disturbance level, reliabilities could not be
calculated. Another dependent variable was body
image, which included measures of the VASs (VAS-
Body Dissatisfaction and VAS-Overall Appearance
Dissatisfaction; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995) and
Appearance Evaluation. The VAS-Body
Dissatisfaction measure has good convergent
validity with the EDI-Body Dissatisfaction subscale
(Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983). Appearance
Evaluation consisted of seven statements
concerning appearance, and this evaluation is a
reliable instrument (.88) that measures the extent
of individuals’ satisfaction with their physical
appearances (Brown, Cash, & Mikulka, 1990). The
internal consistency for Appearance Evaluation
was .85 in this study.

RESULTS

To determine the effects of appearance self-schema
and exposure to media images on college women’s
mood and body image, the data were analyzed
using a general linear model (GLM) repeated
measures analysis of variance, which provides both
univariate and multivariate test results for the
repeated measures data. Appearance self-schema
with two levels (high and low) was a between-
subjects factor, and time of testing (pretest and
posttest) was a within-subjects factor.

The interaction effect between appearance
self-schema and time of testing was not significant
for all measures of mood and body image. The
multivariate test for the appearance self-schema
time interaction effect was not significant for

340 ©2006 INTERNATIONAL TEXTILE & APPAREL ASSOCIATION

1According to the test of normality of the Appearance Schemas
Inventory (ASI) scores, the result was not normal at the significance
level of .1 (p < .01). Thus, the scores were not centrally distributed. © 2006 ITAA. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on February 8, 2007 http://ctr.sagepub.comDownloaded from http://ctr.sagepub.com positive mood, F(1, 104) = .90, p > .05; negative
mood, F(1, 104) = .16, p > .05; anxiety, F(1, 104) =
1.14, p > .05; depression, F(1, 104) = .68, p > .05;
anger, F(1, 104) = .17, p > .05; body dissatisfaction,
F(1, 104) = 2.45, p > .05; overall appearance
dissatisfaction, F(1, 104) = .43, p > .05; and
appearance evaluation, F(1, 104) = 2.76, p > .05.
Appearance self-schema did not mediate the effect
of exposure to media images on mood and body
image. Thus, Hypothesis 3 was not supported.
However, the repeated measures analysis of
variance with appearance self-schema as a
between-subjects factor revealed statistical
significance regarding the measures of mood and
body image. An evaluation of the univariates
revealed statistical significance for positive mood,
F(1, 104) = 7.37, p < .01; negative mood, F(1, 104) = 8.81, p < .01; anxiety, F(1, 104) = 4.25, p < .05; depression, F(1, 104) = 9.34, p < .01; anger, F(1, 104) = 8.46, p < .01; body dissatisfaction, F(1, 104) = 30.08, p < .01; overall appearance dissatisfaction, F(1, 104) = 19.94, p < .01; and appearance evaluation, F(1, 104) = 13.19, p < .01. Women with high-appearance self-schema had significantly lower positive mood, higher negative mood, higher anxiety, higher depression, higher anxiety, higher body dissatisfaction, higher overall appearance dissatisfaction, and lower appearance evaluation than did those with low-appearance self-schema in both preexposure and postexposure conditions (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). Thus, Hypothesis 1 was supported. The repeated measures analysis of variance with time of testing (pretest and posttest for the treatment of exposure to attractive models) as a within-subjects factor revealed statistical significance in measures of mood, but not in measures of body image. An analysis of univariates revealed statistical significance for positive mood, F(1, 104) = 10.47, p < .01; anxiety, F(1, 104) = 8.01, p < .01; and depression, F(1, 104) = 7.47, p < .01. Women with high- appearance self-schema experienced a significant decrease in positive mood and an increase in anxiety and depression from preexposure to postexposure (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). Similarly, women with low-appearance self-schema experienced a significant decrease in positive mood and an increase in anxiety and depression from preexposure to postexposure (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was partially supported. DISCUSSION AND …