Myths And Realities Of Youth Gangs

Myths And Realities Of Youth GangsCover
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 History of Gangs in the United States
Introduction
Street Gang Emergence in the Northeast
First Period of New York City Gang Growth: 1783 to 1860s
Second Period of New York City Gang Growth: 1860s to 1930s
Third Period of New York City Gang Growth: 1930s to 1980s
Modern-Day Eastern Gangs
Street Gang Emergence in the Midwest
First Period of Chicago Gang Growth: 1860s to 1920
Second Period of Chicago Gang Growth: 1920 to 1940s
Third Period of Chicago Gang Growth: 1940s to 1980s
Modern-Day Midwest Gangs
Street Gang Emergence in the West Region
First Period of Los Angeles Gang Growth: 1890s to 1920s
Second Period of Los Angeles Gang Growth: 1940s to 1950s
Third Period of Los Angeles Gang Growth: 1950s to 1980s
Modern-Day Western Gangs
Street Gang Emergence in the South
First Period of Southern Gang Emergence: 1920s to 1970s
Second Period of Southern Gang Growth: 1970s to 1990s
Modern-Day Southern Gangs
In Focus 1.1. Major Gangs: History, Location, Structure, and Identifiers
Another Wave of Immigrant Groups
The Institutionalization of Street Gangs
The Unique Contribution of Prison Gangs to Street Gang Institutionalization
In Focus 1.2. Gang Threat Tiers
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 2 Myths and Realities of Youth Gangs
Introduction
Consideration of Key Myths About Gangs
Myth 1: Most Gangs Have a Formal Organization
Myth 2: Gangs of the Same Name Are Connected
Myth 3: Our Gangs Came From Somewhere Else
Myth 4: The Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and 18th Street (M-18) Gangs Are Spreading Across the United States
Myth 5: Gangs, Drugs, and Violence Are Inexorably Linked
Myth 6: A “Wanna-Be” Is a “Gonna-Be”
Myth 7: Children Are Joining Gangs at Younger and Younger Ages
Myth 8: Gang Members Spend Most of Their Time Planning or Committing Crimes
Myth 9: Gangs Often Have Highly Unusual Initiation Rites
Myth 10: Most Youths Are Pressured to Join Gangs
Myth 11: Adults Recruit Adolescents to Join Gangs
Myth 12: Once Kids Join a Gang, They’re Pretty Much Lost for Good
Myth 13: The Gang’s Here for Good
Myth 14: Gang Members Are a New Wave of Super Predators
Myth 15: Gangs Were Actively Involved in the Crack Cocaine Epidemic
Myth 16: Zero Tolerance of Gang Behaviors Will Eliminate Gangs From Schools
Myth 17: Sole Reliance on Enforcement Will Wipe Out Gangs
Myth 18: Nothing Works With Gangs
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 3 Defining Gangs and Gang Members
Introduction
Defining Gangs
Early Gang Definitions
A Spectrum of Gangs and Other Groups
In Focus 3.1. How the San Diego Del Sol Gang Formed
Typologies of Gang Members and Gang Structures
Typologies of Gangs
Gang Subculture
Ritual and Symbolic Representation
Gang Graffiti
A European Gang Definition
A Recommended Gang Definition for Practical Purposes
Defining Gang Members
Demographic Characteristics of U.S. Gangs and Gang Members
National Data on Gang Members
National Data on the Number of Gangs and Associated Members
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 4 General Macro-Level Theories and Modern-Day Applications
Introduction
The Chicago School and Development of the Social Disorganization Perspective
Thrasher’s Contributions to Social Disorganization Theory
Application of Social Disorganization Theory to Gangs
In Focus 4.1. The Gangs of St. Louis, Missouri
A General Explanation of Gang Origins, Expansion, and Violence
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
In Focus 4.2. The Gangs of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Other Macro-Level Theories
Differential Opportunity
Subcultural Theories
Underclass Theory
Routine Activities (Opportunity) Theory
Conflict Theory
Political Economy
Critical Race Theory
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 5 Micro-Level Theories: Developmental Life-Course Pathways and Other Micro-Level Explanations for Gang Involvement
Introduction
Location of Gang Membership in Developmental Pathways
Developmental Theories
Individual Developmental Theories
Developmental Pathways of Youth Gang Membership
Interactional Theory
A Life-Course Model of Gang Involvement
Gang Membership as a Turning Point in the Life Course
A Unified Theory of Gang Involvement
Multiple-Marginality Theory
The Foundation of a Developmental Female Gang Theory
Desistance From Gang Involvement
An Illustration of the Life-Course Model of Gang Involvement
Perceived Benefits of Joining a Gang: Gang Attractions
Relationship of Risk Factors to Gang Involvement
A Broad Developmental Gang Theory
The Preschool Stage
The School Entry Stage
The Later Childhood Stage
The Early Adolescence Stage
Community or Neighborhood Risk Factors
Family Risk Factors
School Risk Factors
Peer Risk Factors
Individual Risk Factors
Protective Factors
The Gang Joining Process
“The Digital Street”: Gangs on Social Media
What Is Cyberbanging or (Inter)net Banging?
How Prevalent Are Gangs Online?
Identifying and Interpreting Gang Tweets
Enforcement Surveillance of Gangs on Social Media
Apex of Gang Member Criminal Activity
Long-Term Impact of Gang Membership on Participants
Desistance From Gang Membership
Other Micro-Level Gang Theories
Social Control Theories
Differential Association/Social Learning Theory
Labeling/Symbolic Interaction
General Strain Theory
Biosocial and Psychological Theories
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 6 Girls and Gangs
Introduction
Females in Early Gang Studies
Modern-Day Studies of Female Gang Members
Level of Female Gang Involvement and Seriousness of Crimes
The Question of Increasing Female Gang Involvement
The Importance of Gang Gender Composition
Female Associates of Gang Members: Risks and Revictimization
Risk Factors for Girls’ Gang Joining
Girls’ Unique Treatment Needs and Implications for Prevention and Treatment
Recommended Female-Specific Services
Recommended Gender-Neutral Services
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 7 National Gang Problem Trends: 1996 to 2012
Introduction
An Overview of Nationwide Gang Activity in the Modern Era
Gang Growth From the 1960s to the 1990s
Explanations of Gang Growth in the 1980s and 1990s
Nationally Reported Youth Gang Activity From the Mid-1990s
Patterns in U.S. Localities’ Histories of Gang Activity
Patterns of Gang Emergence
Presence of Gang Activity, 1996 to 2012
Patterns of Gang Presence in Larger Cities
Political and Criminal Justice Context
Economic Context
Demographic Context
Cultural Context
Modal Cities
Chronic Gang City: Modesto, California
Emerging Gang City: Warwick, Rhode Island
Contracting Gang City: Newport Beach, California
Variable Gang City: Asheville, North Carolina
Regional Variations in Gang Presence
Explaining the Emergence, Persistence, and Decline of Gang Activity
Factors Affecting the Emergence of Gangs in New Cities
Factors Affecting the Persistence of Gang Activity in Cities
In Focus 7.1. Regional Trends in Gang Activity as Viewed by the FBI and Police Agencies
Factors Affecting the Decline of Gang Activity in Cities
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 8 Urban Gangs and Violence
Introduction
The Intensity of Gangs in Cities
Patterns and Trends in the Number of Active Gangs and Gang Members in Cities
Serious Gang Problem Trends
Gang-Related Homicides and Serious Gang Activity
Regional Variation in Gang-Related Homicide Trends
A Snapshot of Gang Homicide in the Largest Cities
In Focus 8.1. The Long Island Teen Murders and Transnational Gang Mara Salvatrucha
A National Perspective of Gang Structures
Number of Gang Members
Number of Gangs
Combination of Number of Gang Members and Number of Gangs
Key Structural Features of Violent Gangs Nationwide
A Social Network Approach to Gang Cohesion
Gunshot Injury Risk Associated With Social Networks
Case Studies of Gang Problems in Large Cities
Abilene, Texas, Case Study
Boise, Idaho, Case Study
Springfield, Massachusetts, Case Study
Paterson, New Jersey, Case Study
Inglewood, California, Case Study
Contextual Characteristics That Contribute to Serious Gang Problems
City Characteristics
Availability of Crime Facilitators
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 9 What Works: Prevention
Introduction
Risk-Focused, Data-Driven, and Research-Based Gang Prevention
Community Assessments
Prevention Opportunities
In Focus 9.1. Behaviors Associated With Joining a Gang
School-Based Gang Activity
A Framework for Prevention and Early Intervention
Building a Continuum of Effective Delinquency Prevention and Early-Intervention Programs
In Focus 9.2. Repositories of Research-Based Delinquency Prevention Programs
Level 4. Programs for All Youths and Families and Other Community Members
Level 3. Programs for High-Risk Youths
Level 3. Programs for Gang-Involved Youths
School Resource Officers
Child Exposure to Violence and Community Safety
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Chapter 10 What Works: Intervention and Suppression
Introduction
In Focus 10.1 Highlights of Gang-Related Legislation (December, 2016)
Evidence-Based Gang Programs
Evidence-Based Gang Prevention Programs
Evidence-Based Gang Intervention Programs
In Focus 10.2 Criteria for Identifying a Security Threat Group Member
In Focus 10.3. Gang Tattoos
Gang Intervention and Suppression
Promising Gang Programs
The Utility of Gang Intelligence Databases
The Comprehensive, Community-Wide Gang Program Model
First Steps
Comprehensive Gang Program Model Administrative Structure
Implementing the Comprehensive Gang Program Model
The Evidence-Based Comprehensive Gang Program Model
The Six-Site Comprehensive Gang Program Model Evaluation
Concluding Observations
Discussion Topics
Recommendations for Further Reading
Glossary
References
Index