Reaction Paper: Problem solving and creativity

7th Edition

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7th Edition

Cognitive

ROBERT J.

STERNBERG
Cornell University

KARIN

STERNBERG
Cornell University

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Robert J. Sternberg and
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v

Contents in Brief

1 Introduction to Cognitive 1

2 Cognitive Neuroscience 35

3 Visual Perception 71

4 Attention and Consciousness 117

5 Memory: Models and Research Methods 159

6 Memory Processes 203

7 Mental Images and Propositions 245

8 The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind 291

9 Language 329

10 Language in Context 367

11 Problem Solving and Creativity 399

12 Decision Making and Reasoning 439

13 Human Intelligence 479

Glossary 517

References 525

Name Index 579

Subject Index 589

C
H

A
P

T
E

R

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vi

Contents

C H A P T E R 1
Introduction to Cognitive 1

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Now You See It, Now You Don’t! 2
Cognitive Defined 3
Philosophical Origins of : Rationalism versus Empiricism 5
Psychological Origins of Cognitive 7

Early Dialectics in the of Cognition 7

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Pragmatism 10

It’s Only What You Can See That Counts: From Associationism to Behaviorism 11

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Scientific Progress!? 13
The Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Gestalt 14

Emergence of Cognitive 14
Early Role of Cognitive Neuroscience 14
Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied
Cognitive 15

Research Methods in Cognitive 17
Goals of Research 17
Distinctive Research Methods 19

n In the Lab of Henry L. Roediger, III 22

n Investigating Cognitive : Self-Reports 27

Fundamental Ideas in Cognitive 28
Key Themes in Cognitive 30
Summary 31
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 33
Key Terms 33

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Contents vii

C H A P T E R 2
Cognitive Neuroscience 35

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Does Your Brain Use Less Power Than
Your Desk Lamp? 36

Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain 37
Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain 37

n In the Lab of Martha Farah 43

Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function 44
Neuronal Structure and Function 51

Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 54
Postmortem Studies 54
Studying Live Nonhuman Animals 55
Studying Live Humans 55

Brain Disorders 65
Stroke 65

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Brain Surgery Can Be Performed While You Are
Awake! 66

Brain Tumors 66
Head Injuries 66

Key Themes 67
Summary 68
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 69
Key Terms 70
Media Resources 70

C H A P T E R 3
Visual Perception 71

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: If You Encountered Tyrannosaurus Rex, Would
Standing Still Save You? 72

n Investigating Cognitive : Perception 73

From Sensation to Perception 73
Some Basic Concepts of Perception 75

n Investigating Cognitive : The Ganzfeld Effect 76

Seeing Things That Aren’t There, or Are They? 77
How Does Our Visual System Work? 78
Pathways to Perceive the What and the Where 80

Approaches to Perception: How Do We Make Sense of What We See? 81
Bottom-Up Theories 82
Top-Down Theories 91
How Do Bottom-Up Theories and Top-Down Theories Go Together? 94

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Contentsviii

n In the Lab of Marvin Chun 95

Perception of Objects and Forms 96
Viewer-Centered versus Object-Centered Perception 96
The Perception of Groups—Gestalt s 97
Recognizing Patterns and Faces 100

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Do Two Different Faces Ever Look The Same
to You? 103

The Environment Helps You See 104
Perceptual Constancies 104
Depth Perception 106

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Depth Cues in
Photography 106

n Investigating Cognitive : Binocular Depth Cues 109

Deficits in Perception 110
Agnosias and Ataxias 110
Anomalies in Color Perception 112

Why Does It Matter? Perception in Practice 113
Key Themes 114
Summary 114
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 116
Key Terms 116
Media Resources 116

C H A P T E R 4
Attention and Consciousness 117

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Does Paying Attention Enable You to Make
Better Decisions? 118

The Nature of Attention and Consciousness 119
Attention 120

Attending to Signals over the Short and Long Terms 121
Search: Actively Looking 123
Selective Attention 127

n Investigating Cognitive : Attenuation Model 130

n In the Lab of John F. Kihlstrom 132

Divided Attention 133

n Investigating Cognitive : Dividing Your Attention 134

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Are You Productive When You’re Multitasking? 135
Factors That Influence Our Ability to Pay Attention 138
Neuroscience and Attention: A Network Model 139

When Our Attention Fails Us 139
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 140
Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness 141
Spatial Neglect—One Half of the World Goes Amiss 142

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Contents ix

Automatic and Controlled Processes in Attention 143
Automatic and Controlled Processes 143
How Does Automatization Occur? 145
Automatization in Everyday Life 146
Mistakes We Make in Automatic Processes 148

Consciousness 149
The Consciousness of Mental Processes 150
Preconscious Processing 150

Key Themes 154
Summary 154
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 156
Key Terms 156
Media Resources 157

C H A P T E R 5
Memory: Models and Research Methods 159

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Memory Problems? How about Flying Less? 160
Tasks Used for Measuring Memory 161

Recall versus Recognition Tasks 161
Implicit versus Explicit Memory Tasks 164

Two Contrasting Models of Memory 166
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multistore Model 166
The Levels-of-Processing Model 173

n Investigating Cognitive : Levels of Processing 175

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Elaboration Strategies 176

Working Memory: An Integrative Model 176
The Components of Working Memory 177

Neuroscience and Working Memory 180
Measuring Working Memory 183

Other Models of Memory 184
Multiple Memory Systems 184

n In the Lab of Marcia K. Johnson 186

A Connectionist Perspective 187
Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology 190

Outstanding Memory: Mnemonists 190
Deficient Memory 192

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: You Can Be a Memory Champion, Too! 193
Key Themes 199
Summary 199
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 200
Key Terms 201
Media Resources 201

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Contentsx

C H A P T E R 6
Memory Processes 203

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: There’s a Reason You Remember Those
Annoying Songs 204

Encoding and Transfer of Information 205
Forms of Encoding 205

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Memory Strategies 214

n Investigating Cognitive : Test Your Short-Term Memory 215

Neuroscience: How Are Memories Stored? 216
Retrieval 219

Retrieval from Short-Term Memory 219
Retrieval from Long-Term Memory 221

Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion 222
Interference Theory 222

n Investigating Cognitive : Can You Recall Bartlett’s Legend? 225

n Investigating Cognitive : The Serial-Position Curve 226

n Investigating Cognitive : Primacy and Recency Effects 226

Decay Theory 226
The Constructive Nature of Memory 228

Autobiographical Memory 228

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Caught in the Past!? 231
Memory Distortions 231

n In the Lab of Elizabeth Loftus 235

The Effect of Context on Memory 238
Key Themes 241
Summary 241
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 243
Key Terms 243
Media Resources 244

C H A P T E R 7
Mental Images and Propositions 245

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: City Maps of Music for the Blind 246
Mental Representation of Knowledge 247

Communicating Knowledge: Pictures versus Words 248

n Investigating Cognitive : Representations in Pictures and
Words 250

Pictures in Your Mind: Mental Imagery 250

n Investigating Cognitive : Analogical and Symbolic Representations
of Cats 251

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Contents xi

n Investigating Cognitive : Can Your Brain Store Images of
Your Face? 252

Dual-Code Theory: Images and Symbols 253

n Investigating Cognitive : Dual Coding 254

n In the Lab of Doug Medin 255

Storing Knowledge as Abstract Concepts: Propositional Theory 255
Do Propositional Theory and Imagery Hold Up to Their Promises? 257

Mental Manipulations of Images 261
Principles of Visual Imagery 261
Neuroscience and Functional Equivalence 261
Mental Rotations 263

n Investigating Cognitive : Try Your Skills at Mental Rotation 265

Zooming in on Mental Images: Image Scaling 267

n Investigating Cognitive : Image Scaling 268

n Investigating Cognitive : Image Scanning 269

Examining Objects: Image Scanning 270
Representational Neglect 271

Synthesizing Images and Propositions 272
Do Experimenters’ Expectations Influence Experiment Outcomes? 272
Johnson-Laird’s Mental Models 273

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Dual Codes 275

Neuroscience: Evidence for Multiple Codes 276
Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps 279

Of Rats, Bees, Pigeons, and Humans 280

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Memory Test? Don’t Compete with Chimpanzees! 282
Rules of Thumb for Using Our Mental Maps: Heuristics 282

n Investigating Cognitive : Mental Maps 285

Creating Maps from What You Hear: Text Maps 286
Key Themes 287
Summary 287
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 289
Key Terms 290
Media Resources 290

C H A P T E R 8
The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind 291

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: The Savant in All of Us 292
Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge 293

n Investigating Cognitive : Testing Your Declarative and Procedural
Knowledge 293

Organization of Declarative Knowledge 294
Concepts and Categories 295

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Contentsxii

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Some Numbers Are Odd, and Some Are Odder 301
Semantic-Network Models 304
Schematic Representations 307

n Investigating Cognitive : Scripts—The Doctor 309

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Scripts in Your
Everyday Life 311

Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge 312
The “Production” of Procedural Knowledge 312
Nondeclarative Knowledge 313

n Investigating Cognitive : Procedural Knowledge 314

n Investigating Cognitive : Priming 315

Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge 315
Combining Representations: ACT-R 316
Parallel Processing: The Connectionist Model 319

n In the Lab of James L. McClelland 323

How Domain General or Domain Specific Is Cognition? 325
Key Themes 326
Summary 327
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 328
Key Terms 328
Media Resources 328

C H A P T E R 9
Language 329

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Do the Chinese Think about Numbers Differently
Than Americans? 330

What Is Language? 331
Properties of Language 331
The Basic Components of Words and Sentences 334

Language Comprehension 336
Understanding Words 336

n Investigating Cognitive : Understanding Schemas 340

Understanding Meaning: Semantics 341

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Can It Really Be Hard to Stop Cursing? 342
Understanding Sentences: Syntax 343

n Investigating Cognitive : Your Sense of Grammar 344

n Investigating Cognitive : Syntax 347

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Speaking with Non-Native
English Speakers 349

n In the Lab of Steven Pinker 350

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Contents xiii

Reading 351
Perceptual Issues in Reading 351
Lexical Processes in Reading 352
Teaching How to Read 355
When Reading Is a Problem—Dyslexia 356

Understanding Conversations and Essays: Discourse 356

n Investigating Cognitive : Discourse 357

n Investigating Cognitive : Deciphering Text 357

n Investigating Cognitive : Effects of Expectations in Reading 358

Comprehending Known Words: Retrieving Word Meaning from Memory 358
Comprehending Unknown Words: Deriving Word Meanings from Context 359
Comprehending Ideas: Propositional Representations 360
Comprehending Text Based on Context and Point of View 360

n Investigating Cognitive : Using Redundancy to Decipher Cryptic
Text 361

Representing Text in Mental Models 361
Key Themes 363
Summary 363
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 364
Key Terms 365
Media Resources 365

C H A P T E R 10
Language in Context 367

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Is It Possible to Count without Words for
Numbers? 368

Language and Thought 369
Differences among Languages 369

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Do You See Colors to Your Left Differently Than Colors
to Your Right? 373

n In the Lab of Keith Rayner 375

Bilingualism and Dialects 376
Slips of the Tongue 382
Metaphorical Language 383

Language in a Social Context 384

n Investigating Cognitive : Language in Different Contexts 385

Characteristics of Successful Conversations 386
Gender and Language 387

Do Animals Have Language? 388

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Contentsxiv

Neuropsychology of Language 391
Brain Structures Involved in Language 391
Aphasia 394
Autism Spectrum Disorder 395

Key Themes 395
Summary 396
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 397
Key Terms 398

C H A P T E R 11
Problem Solving and Creativity 399

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Can Novices Have an Advantage over Experts? 400
The Problem-Solving Cycle 401
Types of Problems 403

Well-Structured Problems 403

n Investigating Cognitive : Move Problems 404

Ill-Structured Problems and the Role of Insight 409
Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving 414

Mental Sets, Entrenchment, and Fixation 415

n Investigating Cognitive : Luchins’s Water-Jar Problems 415

Negative and Positive Transfer 417

n Investigating Cognitive : Problems Involving Transfer 417

Incubation 420
Embodied Cognition and Problem Solving 420
Neuroscience and Planning during Problem Solving 421

Expertise: Knowledge and Problem Solving 422
Organization of Knowledge 422

n In the Lab of K. Anders Ericsson 426

Long-Term Working Memory and Expertise 429
Innate Talent and Acquired Skill 430

Creativity 431
Characteristics of Creative People 432

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: When Will You Do Your Best Work? 434
n Investigating Cognitive : Creativity in Problem Solving 435

Neuroscience and Creativity 435
Key Themes 436
Summary 436
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 438
Key Terms 438
Media Resources 438

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Contents xv

C H A P T E R 12
Decision Making and Reasoning 439

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Can a Simple Rule of Thumb Outsmart a Nobel
Laureate’s Investment Strategy? 440

n Investigating Cognitive : The Conjunction Fallacy 440

Judgment and Decision Making 441
Classical Decision Theory 441
Heuristics and Biases 442

n Investigating Cognitive : Framing Effects 449

Fallacies 451
Gambler’s Fallacy and the Hot Hand 451
Conjunction Fallacy 452
Do Heuristics Help Us or Lead Us Astray? 453
Opportunity Costs 454
Naturalistic Decision Making 454
Group Decision Making 455

n In the Lab of Gerd Gigerenzer 455

Neuroscience of Decision Making 457
Deductive Reasoning 459

What Is Deductive Reasoning? 459
Conditional Reasoning 459
Syllogistic Reasoning: Categorical Syllogisms 465
Aids and Obstacles to Deductive Reasoning 468

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Improving Your Deductive
Reasoning Skills 469

Inductive Reasoning 469
What Is Inductive Reasoning? 469
Causal Inferences 470
Categorical Inferences 471
Reasoning by Analogy 471

An Alternative View of Reasoning 472
Neuroscience of Reasoning 473

n Investigating Cognitive : When There Is No “Right” Choice 474

Key Themes 475
Summary 476
Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 477
Key Terms 478
Media Resources 478

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Contentsxvi

C H A P T E R 13
Human Intelligence 479

n BELIEVE IT OR NOT: Can Our Expectations Really Affect Our
Cognitive Performance? 480

n Investigating Cognitive : Intelligence 481

Measures and Structures of Intelligence 483
Spearman: The “g” Factor 486
Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities 489
Cattell, Vernon, and Carroll: Hierarchical Models 489

Information Processing and Intelligence 490
Process-Timing Theories 490
Working Memory 492
Componential Theory and Complex Problem Solving 492

n In the Lab of Ian Deary 494

Biological Bases of Intelligence 495
Alternative Approaches to Intelligence 497

Cultural Context and Intelligence 497
Gardner: Multiple Intelligences 501
Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory 502

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Intelligence and Culture 505

Improving Intelligence: Effective, Ineffective, and Questionable Strategies 505
Improving Children’s Intelligence 505

n Investigating Cognitive : Teaching Intelligence 506

Development of Intelligence in Adults 507
Artificial Intelligence: Computer Simulations 510

Can a Computer Program Be “Intelligent”? 510
Applications of Artificial Intelligence 511
Intelligence versus the Appearance of Intelligence 511

n Practical Applications of Cognitive : Cognitive Styles 512

Key Themes 512
Summary 513
Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 514
Key Terms 515

Glossary 517
References 525
Name Index 579
Subject Index 589

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xvii

Preface

To the Instructor
Welcome to the seventh edition of Cognitive . As you have likely noticed, this
new edition is now published in four-color print. This greatly enhances the visual appeal
of the book and also allows for a whole new level of detail in the images of the book.
Most of the images in the book have been replaced or reworked to function even better
as learning aids.

A major focus of this revision was the readability and understandability of the text.
We have rewritten and modified many sections and have deleted or shortened a number
of tables that were long.

In the following sections, we will outline the changes we made to give you an over-
view of this new edition.

Please also note the section on ancillaries. These materials have been developed
to assist you in teaching your cognitive psychology class. A number of resources are
available, which are listed in the following sections. We have included additional Inter-
net addresses to the resources interest to students, including virtual tours of a magnetic …