Read the Article And Write 3 Pages Essay Including Few Deatils From The Chapters Which Are Attached Below.

Assignment Questions

Lecture Outlines

ENVIRONMENT the science behind the stories

Chapter 12

Forests, Forest Management,
and Protected Areas

Lecture objectives
 Summarize the ecological and economic

contributions of forests.
 Outline the history and current scale of

deforestation.
 Assess dynamics of timber management.
 Discuss forest management in relation to fire, pests,

and climate change, and evaluate sustainable
forestry certification.

 Name federal land management agencies and the
lands they manage.

 Discuss types of parks and protected areas and
evaluate issues involved in their design.

Certified Sustainable Paper in Your Textbook
 Each stage of production of your textbook, including

harvesting and transporting the trees, processing at
the pulp mill and paper production, has followed a
sustainable management plan.

 Inspectors from the Forest
Stewardship Council, an
independent third-party
organization, have established
many criteria that must be met
for FSC certification.

 FSC-certified operations must:
 Protect rare species and sensitive habitats.
 Safeguard water sources.
 Control erosion.
 Minimize pesticide use.
 Maintain forest diversity and its ability to regenerate

after harvesting.

Forest Ecosystems and Forest Resources
 A forest is any ecosystem with a high density of

trees.
 Forest biomes include boreal forest, tropical

rainforest, temperature deciduous forests, temperate
rainforests, and tropical dry forests.

 Within each forest biome, differences in soil and
climate will alter the community.

 Forest types are classifications of forests based on
their predominant tree species.
 Altogether, forests cover 31% of Earth’s land surface.

Forests are ecologically complex
 Forests are structurally complex, with each level

providing niches for many different organisms.
 The canopy is the upper level of leaves and

branches in the treetops.

 The subcanopy is the middle portion of the forest,
found beneath the tree crowns of the canopy.

 The shaded lower level consisting of shrubs and
small trees is the understory.

 The forest floor contains groundcover plants.

 Dead and dying trees, called snags, are homes for
insects, which in turn provide food sources for birds.

 Fallen trees create openings called treefall gaps,
areas where sunlight encourages the growth of early
successional plants.

Forests provide ecosystem services
 Tree roots stabilize soil and

draw up minerals from deep
soil layers.

 Leaves and leaf litter slow
runoff by intercepting water,
increasing water infiltration
into soil and aquifers.

 Forest plants filter pollution,
take in carbon dioxide, and
produce oxygen that we
breathe.

 Forests also provide cultural,
aesthetic, and recreation
values to people.

Forests provide us valuable resources
 Forests also contain plants we use for medicines

and dyes, animals, plants and fungi for food, and
wood from the trees themselves.

 Industrial harvesting has increased our ability to
extract timber, with most of it coming from countries
with boreal forests like Canada and Russia or
rainforests such as Brazil or Indonesia.

Forest Loss
 Deforestation is the clearing of forests more quickly

than they can regrow.
 Deforestation leads to biodiversity loss, soil

degradation, and desertification, as well as
contributing to climate change.

 Satellite analysis conducted by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
concluded that we are eliminating 7.6 million
hectares of forest each year.
 Accounting for regrowth, that is an annual net loss of

3.3 million hectares.

We deforested much of North America
 Heavy deforestation through the mid-1800s in North

America has resulted in very little primary forest
being left behind.
 Primary forest is natural forest left uncut by people.

 Most of the trees in today’s forests are ones that
have sprouted and grown to partial maturity since
the old-growth trees were cut.
 These forests are called secondary forests, and may

have a very different species composition, structure,
and nutrient balance.

Forests today are cleared most rapidly in
developing nations
 Uncut primary forests still remain in many

developing countries, but are being harvested much
more rapidly due to powerful industrial technologies.
 The deforestation is spurred by a desire to expand

human settlements, boost economic growth, and
provide fuelwood for heating and cooking needs.

 In contrast, parts of Europe and the United States
are gaining forest as they recover from past
deforestation.

[Insert Figure 12.6(b), p. 306, 6e]

 Brazil is a good example of this, as it has lost forests
rapidly to expanding soybean farming and cattle
ranching.

[Insert Figure 12.7, p. 307, 6e]

 Developing nations may allow their timber to be
extracted by large multinational corporations, who
pay them fees called concessions.
 The timber is then exported to wealthier nations.

 Concessions often lead to short-term economic
benefits, but many environmental consequences for
the developing nations.

 In Southeast Asia,
swaths of tropical
rainforest are being
cut to establish palm
oil plantations.
 Palm oil is used as

a biofuel and is also
found in many
processed foods.

Forest loss worsens climate change
 The world’s forests store an estimated 296 billion

metric tons of carbon in the living tissues of trees
and other plants.
 When forests are cut and burned or decomposed,

carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere and
less vegetation remains to soak it back up.

Solutions are emerging
 Conservations are pursuing community-based

stewardship projects that empower local people to
act as stewards for their forests.

 Other organizations provide conservation
concessions, or payments to countries to preserve
forests instead of harvesting them.

 This idea is expanding under an international
program called Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+).
 Developing nations receive conservation

concessions, while developed countries receive
carbon emissions offset credits.

Review Questions
1. What type of forest is more likely to be found in

historically clear-cut areas in North America and
Europe?
a. Primary
b. Secondary
c. An even mixture of primary and secondary forests

Review Questions
2. What layer of a forest contains most of the leaves,

fruit, and is the primary site for photosynthesis?
a. Canopy
b. Subcanopy
c. Understory
d. Forest floor

Review Questions
3. Payments given to countries in exchange for timber

rights are called
a. snags.
b. concessions.
c. conservation concessions.
d. carbon offsets.

Forest Management
 Forestry is the practice of managing society’s

demand for forests against maintaining them as
ecosystems.
 Timber is renewable, as long as it is not exploited too

rapidly.
 Resource management describes the overall

strategy of managing and regulating the harvest of
renewable resources.

Resource managers follow several strategies
 Resources managers try to determine the maximum

sustainable yield, allowing them to achieve the
greatest amount of resource extraction without
depleting the resource.
 This usually means

a harvest at about
the middle of the
logistic growth curve.
 The downside is that

the population is
limited to about half
its normal size.

 An alternative system is ecosystem-based
management, where managers try to minimize
impacts on the ecosystem and its processes.
 Protect certain areas of the forest.
 Restore ecologically important habitats.
 Consider patterns at the landscape level.

 This system is difficult to implement because
ecosystems are so complex that scientists often
disagree on how to set it up.

 Adaptive management involves testing different
approaches and trying to improve methods over
time.

Fear of a “timber famine” inspired national
forests
 The United States established and began managing

the national forest as high rates of deforestation
gave rise to fears of a national “timber famine.”

We extract timber from private and public lands
 Today, almost 90% of

the timber harvesting
in the United States
takes place on
private land.
 Timber companies

pursue maximum
sustainable yield, to
maximize yearly
profits.

 The Forest Service sells timber below its own costs,
creating a situation where taxpayers subsidize
private timber harvesting on public land.
 Only about 2% of U.S. Forest acreage is harvested

for timber each year.
 Overall, timber harvesting has been stable in

developed countries in the past half-century, but has
doubled in developing countries.

Plantation forestry has grown
 Today’s timber industry focuses on monocultures of

fast-growing trees that are all planted at the same
time.
 This is called

even-aged, since
the trees are all
the same age.

 Even-aged stands lack the biodiversity and habitat
offerings of regular forests, and are highly vulnerable
to pest insects.

 Uneven-aged stands create a mix of ages (and
species), which creates greater structural diversity,
more habitats, and is generally more similar to what
a national forest would look like.

We harvest timber by several methods
 The simplest method of

harvesting is clear-
cutting, where all the
trees are cut at once.
 This increases erosion

and alters
microclimates
due to increased
sunlight penetration.

 Other approaches include:
 The seed-tree approach, where some seed-

producing trees are left to reseed the harvested area.
 The shelterwood approach leaves some mature

trees behind to shelter growing seedlings.
 Selection systems maintain uneven-aged stands by

only removing some trees.
 Selection systems are the most expensive and pose

more safety risks to loggers.

Forest management has evolved over time
 For the past half-century, the U.S. Forest Service

has followed the multiple use policy, meaning that
forests are to be managed for recreation, wildlife
habitat, mineral extraction, and other uses in
addition to timber.

 In 1976, the U.S. Congress passed the National
Forest Management Act, which required the Forest
Service to draw up renewable resource
management plans for each national forest.

 Since the law was passed, programs to manage
wildlife, non-game animals and endangered species
have been developed.
 Nesting trees for an

endangered bird,
for example, may be
marked with bands of
paint.

 A set of approaches
called new forestry
tries to make
harvesting mimic
natural disturbances, such as a windstorm.

 In 2001, President Bill Clinton issued an executive
order called the roadless rule that placed about a
third of national forests off-limits to road
construction.
 In 2005, the rule was repealed by President George

W. Bush, allowing states to decide for themselves
how to manage national forests within their
boundaries.
 Most of the roadless rule policy was then reinstated

by President Barack Obama.

Fire can help or hurt forests
 For much of its existence, the Forest Service

suppressed fire whenever it broke out.
 Scientists now know that

fire is an important part
of forest ecology.
 Fire suppression has

also led to an increase
in large, catastrophic
fires.

 More residential development along forested land,
the wildland-urban interface, has placed more
homes in fire-prone situations.

 To reduce fuel loads, protect property, and improve
forest conditions, land management areas will now
use intentionally set, low-intensity fires called
prescribed burns.

 Major fires in California in 2003 led to the passage of
the Healthy Forests Restoration Act.
 This act promoted prescribed burns, physical removal

of underbrush and dead trees, and the practice of
salvage logging where fallen trees are removed after
a large storm.

Climate change and pest outbreaks are altering
forests
 Global climate change has brought warmer, drier

weather to the American West, worsening fire risks.
 Pine bark beetle outbreaks have worsened, killing

billions of conifer trees, leaving them as fodder for
fire.

[Insert Figure 12.19(a), p. 315, 6e]

 Pine bark beetle outbreaks have worsened for two
reasons:
 Even-aged plantation forests have high numbers of

trees that are at the perfect age for beetle infestation.
 Milder winters allow

the beetles to
overwinter further
north than usual,
and warmer
summers increase
their activity and
feeding rates.

Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
 Organizations such as the Forest Stewardship

Council (FSC) now examine practices of timber
companies and rate them.

 Sustainable forest
certification is
granted to companies
whose methods are
judged to be
sustainable.

Parks and Protected Areas
 The United States created the world’s first national

parks to preserve the American West for nature
appreciation and recreation.

 The Antiquities Act
of 1906 gave the
president authority
to declare selected
public lands as
national
monuments.

 The National Park Service was created in 1916 to
administer the 408 total parks and monuments.
 The parks receive over 280 million reported recreation

visits per year.

 Another classification of protected area is the
national wildlife refuge, which are meant to be
havens for wildlife.
 The U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service
administers the
refuges.
 Non-commercial

hunting, fishing,
photography, and
environmental
education are all
encouraged at
refuges.

Wilderness areas are established on federal
lands
 In 1964, the U.S. Congress passed the Wilderness

Act, allowing some federal areas to be designated
wilderness areas.
 These areas are

off-limits to
development,
but open to
hiking and other
low-impact
public recreation.

Not everyone supports setting land aside
 When some of the western states came into

existence, the federal government retained control
over much of their acreage.
 Idaho, Oregon, and Utah control less than half of their

own land.
 Some state governments want to gain control over

these lands, and allow them to be used for resource
extraction.

 Parks may also be opposed by indigenous people.
 Native Americans, for example, oppose rock climbing

at Devil’s Tower National Monument in Wyoming.

Many agencies and groups protect land
 Each U.S. state has agencies that manage public

lands, as do counties and municipalities.
 Nearly 7,000 state parks are found across the United

States.
 Private nonprofit groups may also purchase land for

preservation, creating land trusts.
 Examples include California’s Big Sur, Jackson Hole

in Wyoming, and Maine’s Mount Desert Island.

Parks and reserves are increasing
internationally
 Worldwide area in protected parks and reserves has

increased nearly sevenfold since 1970.
 Parks in developing countries often do not have the

funding needed to manage them and protect them
from poaching.

 The United Nations has established protected areas
called biosphere reserves that have exceptional
levels of biodiversity and benefit local people.
 Biosphere reserves contain three zones, each of

which has different limits on how the land can be
used.

 The U.N. also designates world heritage sites,
which have special natural or cultural values and
span the borders of multiple countries.
 One example is a mountain gorilla reserve that

integrates parklands from Rwanda, Uganda, and the
Democratic Republic of Congo.

Economic incentives can help preserve land
 Conservation organizations may offer a debt-for-

nature swap, where the organization raises money
to pay off a developing nation’s international debt in
exchange for setting aside land as reserves.
 The United States forgave $30 million in debt to

Indonesia to preserve forested areas that are home to
the Sumatran Tiger.

Habitat fragmentation makes preserves more
vital
 Expanding agriculture, cities, highways, and logging

can all divide up large areas of habitat into small,
disconnected ones.

 When forests are fragmented, large species that
need large areas of habitat may disappear.

 Other species may experience edge effects, where
the conditions along a fragment’s edge differ from
the conditions in the interior.
 Birds, like the wood thrush,

that live near the edges of
habitats, may be attacked
by predators and parasites
that favor open areas.

Insights from islands warn us of habitat
fragmentation
 The island biogeography theory explains how the

number of species on an island is the result of a
balance between immigration of new species and
others lost through extirpation.
 The theory predicts

an island’s species
richness based on
its size and distance
from the mainland.

 The farther an island is from a continent, the fewer
species tend to colonize it.

 Larger islands have higher immigration rates.
 Larger islands have lower extinction rates.

[Insert Figure 12.26, p. 323, 6e]

Reserve design has consequences for
biodiversity
 With fragmentation in mind, conservationists have

debated whether it is better to make reserves large
in size and few in number, or small in size and many
in number.
 This is called the SLOSS (single large or several

small) debate.
 Large species that roam great distances benefit the

most from larger reserves.
 Smaller organisms like insects thrive in smaller areas

and are better helped by having a wide variety of
habitats protected.

Review Questions
4. Which of these activities would NOT be allowed in

a U.S. national park such as Yellowstone?
a. Overnight camping
b. Hiking
c. Fishing
d. Logging

Review Questions
5. What is a biosphere reserve?

a. Land managed by a country for sustainable
resource extraction

b. An area set aside by a country for wildlife protection
c. A United Nations-managed area of high biodiversity

that combines preservation with sustainable
development

d. A forested area that only allows hunting but not
timber extraction

Review Questions
6. Which of these island characteristics would be

TRUE according to the island biogeography
theory?
a. Smaller islands have lower extinction rates.
b. Larger islands have lower rates of species

immigration.
c. Islands close to continents are colonized by new

species more easily.
d. Island distance is not a variable that affects species

richness.

Slide Number 1
Lecture objectives
Certified Sustainable Paper in Your Textbook
Slide Number 4
Forest Ecosystems and Forest Resources
Slide Number 6
Forests are ecologically complex
Slide Number 8
Slide Number 9
Forests provide ecosystem services
Slide Number 11
Forests provide us valuable resources
Forest Loss
We deforested much of North America
Slide Number 15
Forests today are cleared most rapidly in developing nations
Slide Number 17
Slide Number 18
Slide Number 19
Slide Number 20
Forest loss worsens climate change
Solutions are emerging
Review Questions
Review Questions
Review Questions
Forest Management
Resource managers follow several strategies
Slide Number 28
Fear of a “timber famine” inspired national forests
We extract timber from private and public lands
Slide Number 31
Plantation forestry has grown
Slide Number 33
We harvest timber by several methods
Slide Number 35
Slide Number 36
Forest management has evolved over time
Slide Number 38
Slide Number 39
Fire can help or hurt forests
Slide Number 41
Slide Number 42
Slide Number 43
Climate change and pest outbreaks are altering forests
Slide Number 45
Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
Parks and Protected Areas
Slide Number 48
Slide Number 49
Wilderness areas are established on federal lands
Not everyone supports setting land aside
Many agencies and groups protect land
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally
Slide Number 54
Slide Number 55
Economic incentives can help preserve land
Habitat fragmentation makes preserves more vital
Slide Number 58
Insights from islands warn us of habitat fragmentation
Slide Number 60
Reserve design has consequences for biodiversity
Review Questions
Review Questions
Review Questions

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