Response Essay

1

What are New Religious Movements?

The term New Religious Movement, or ‘NRMs’, at a superficial level at least, is a useful form

of terminology to describe a large number of groups or organisations.1 NRMs often challenge

our understanding of what we define a religion to be, the problem materialises when we try to

analysis the organisations that fall within this very wide parameter of definitions. Almost

immediately, we find that these groups are as diverse in their practise and belief structures as

the established religions, but we would not for instance apply such a general term to these

established religions. 2 Established religions can be categorised within a ‘religious movement’

grouping but we would seldom see or hear NRM included with any description relating to the

Baptist Church or the Methodists.3

To help answer this we will use this paper to explore definitions of this term and the types of

groups, organisations or movements that are often contained under its umbrella. This will be

done by looking at why, how and why the term came into common use. To help expand on

this we will also look at definitions offered by scholars within this field and similarly will

look at the main typologies and characteristics used when looking at NRMs. Finally, we will

apply our findings to three movements, totally opposite in their operating and belief structure,

but categorised within the NRM umbrella. First, Scientology, second the Jehovah Witnesses

and to present a different set of characteristics, third we will look at the Heavens Gate group.

The term ‘new religious movement’ is a relatively modern term that has become widely used

to describe various groups or organisations that fit within the parameters the name suggests.

Eileen Barker links the use of this terminology to organisations that have evolved from the

1950’s who offer some sort of spiritual or philosophical guidance. She suggests that while

there might be a few characteristics that can help to unify these groups it is frankly absurd to

categorise them all within the term NRM.4

The problem lies with expecting NRM to be fully accurate in its description. New implies

obviously that something is new, but not all NRMs, even though they fit into this term, are

new. For example, an Indian NRM, ‘Muttappan Teyyam’, became popular in the 1950’s so

1 Eileen Barker, ‘New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction’, (London: HMSO Publications Centre:
1989), p9.
2 Peter Clarke, ‘New Religions in Global Perspective’, (Abingdon: Routledge: 2006), pxiv.
3 David V. Barrett, ‘The New Believers’, (London: Cassell & Co: 2001), p21.
4 Eileen Barker, op.cit. p9.

2

What are New Religious Movements?

would classify as a NRM but dates its origins back several centuries.5 The use of ‘religious’ is

not helpful, after all Christianity did not officially become a religion until the 3rd century.6

The term ‘movement’ implies it is a more fluid, less tangible group than an ‘organisation’ as

this would imply a formulated leadership with a hierarchical structure, while many NRMs are

very well structured and could not be included within the definition that ‘movement’ implies.7

David Barrett refers to what sociologists call ‘ideal types’, saying that NRM as a terminology

has been brought into the vocabulary by sociologists of religion, as a way of avoiding terms

such as ‘sect’ or ‘cult’, as when these descriptions are applied to groups there is an implied

negativity. To emphasis, this he uses the definition of Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923) who said

that Churches were large hierarchical organisations whose authority came through the

priesthood, its members usually being born into the Church and coming from higher status

groups. While sects (notice the lowercase sect compared to the capitalization for Church)

were smaller groups, whose authority is taken from the Bible, its members being recruited

and coming from the lower class groups. He adds the point that earlier typologies concerning

NRMs are no longer of any validity, due partly to the cultural changes that have changed the

type of member now attracted to NRMs. A reversal in fact from the lower class convert to the

middle class, well educated, and possibly disaffected but not disadvantaged person, currently

proselytized.8 The word ‘cult’ invokes emotions that are even more negative. Coming from the

17th century Latin word ‘cultus’ there are clear links in its original application to satanic

forms of worship.9

James Beckford contributing in ‘Cults and New Religious Movements’ makes the point that

most NRMs would hardly be different at all in their operation, or moral and social failings

than any of the established religions. He agrees that some of the violent and self destructive

acts were carried out by so-called ‘cultic groups’ such as mass suicide surrounding ‘The

Peoples Temple’ in 1978 and the loss of life following the assault on the Branch Davidian

compound at Waco in 1993. He makes a valid point in first establishing that the groups

mentioned had come out of respectable Christian denominations and second in reminding the

5 Christopher Partridge, ‘Introduction’ in Encyclopaedia of New Religions ed. Christopher Partridge, (Oxford:
Lion Publishing plc: 2004), p20.
6 David V. Barrett, op.cit. p21.
7 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, ‘Introduction’ New Religious Movements: A documentary Reader, ed.
Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, (New York: New York University Press: 2005),p4.
8 David V. Barrett, op.cit. p23.
9 ‘Cult’, (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cult?view=uk ), (28/11/10).

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cult?view=uk

3

What are New Religious Movements?

reader that the atrocities carried out in the former Yugoslavia and Northern Island can hardly

present the established religions as being blameless.10

Peter Clarke follows the pattern of highlighting difference between the old NRMs and the

newer ones by making three observations. First, recognising that membership and belonging

are different between old and new NRMs and that it is possible to belong to several NRMs

simultaneously, whilst retaining a membership with the religion or Church of one’s birth.

Second, he stresses organisational working differences by noting the modern communication

methods used and in the community focus that they now have. Finally, his third point, he

contrasts the different ways that NRMs now react to mainstream religious groups and

organisations, whilst still professing a desire to change or transform existing religions they

are far more inclusive than they had been previously.11

Roy Wallis (1945-1990) suggests that NRMs fall broadly into three categories. The world

rejecting, the world affirming and the world accommodating. The world-rejecting group

condemns the materialistic world condemning any personal success that arrives from it. They

desire a return to rural values, which they feel, will allow members to become closer to the

divine believing that the world around them has lost touch with God. Usually they believe a

new world order is imminent and will be generated by their particular group. Traditions

having roots within Christianity quite often see their leaders as either occupying the role of

Christ, as with followers of the Unification Church or at times as a returned Christ figure as

had been seen with the Manson family group.12

The world-affirming group is the opposite of the rejecting group. They believe the way to

ultimate fulfilment is through the individual. Goodness and advancement comes from within,

therefore there is no requirement to withdraw from the world, it is only necessary to unlock

the human potential inside all of humankind. The social structure is not at fault as with the

rejecting-group, as the source of happiness or unhappiness is available to everyone. Coming

from within as it is the individual who has control. The Church of Scientology, founded by L.

10 James A. Beckford ‘The Continuum between “Cults” and “Normal” Religion’ in Cults and New Religious
Movements: A Reader, ed. Lorne L. Dawson, (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing: 2003), p26-27.
11 Peter Clarke, op.cit. p13.
12 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’ in Cults And New Religious Movements: A Reader ed.
Lorne L. Dawson, (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), p36-44.

4

What are New Religious Movements?

Ron Hubbard (1911-1986) is a perfect example of a world-affirming group who through

personal development hope to eradicate problems within the world at large.13

Finally, the world-accommodating group of religions whilst having a set of beliefs that are

centred around a personal orientation, the basis for worship and ritual is performed through

the collective format. The remonstration for members of these groups is not against society as

a whole but rather against the religious groupings they consider have lost some of their

vitality or zeal. The Charismatic Renewal Movement is a good example of a group that would

belong within this typology as its members originated from within an existing religious

tradition but feeling the need for a deeper spiritual satisfaction than what was being

experienced.14

Dereck Daschke and Michael Ashcraft have a five tier level typology that NRMs ultimately

fit into, they suggest a series five ‘themes’, the new understanding group, the new self group,

the new family group, the new society group and the new world group. They go on to say that

these themes can exist individually or within several different groups at the same time. The

common theme is they allow members (insiders) and non-members (outsiders) an opportunity

for self-identification when compared against other possible social groupings.15 The new

understanding group see life as an illusion and seek a new understanding of the cosmos. This

is open to all types of people provided they can differentiate between this illusion and reality.

Whilst groups within this theme have influences from across the religious spectrum, the

Eastern traditional religions, such as Buddhism play a large part. The new self-group see

potential within all human beings that just needs to be unlocked and liberated from the

corrupted world that we live in; the ultimate aim is to become individually God like.16 The

new family group strive to offer an alternative or new style of family. In many ways, these

groups belong to world rejecting groups where members are encouraged to sever existing

family ties. Because of this, many movements belonging within this group have received

considerable attention from the anti-cultic movements for the way they are seen to break up

existing families.17 The new society group want to change society, transforming it with their

own code of morality or social understanding. These groups have a natural focus on righting

13 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’, op.cit. p44-49.
14 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’, op.cit. p54-55.
15 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit. p11.
16 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit. p11-12.
17 ibid. p12.

5

What are New Religious Movements?

injustice.18 Finally, the new world group would consider that they were apocalyptic in their

outlook, expecting that a new world order will emerge. Even in stark contrast in their belief

structure both Christian and non-Christian based groups believe and wait for the new world.

The Christian groups expecting the battle at Armageddon while the non-theistic traditions

wait for the intervention of superior, alien based life forms. 19

Two key characteristics, normally unique to NRMs are ‘the charismatic leader’ and ‘the first

generation convert’. Both share a bond as they act in unison. As Eileen Barker states, “New

religions are rarely initiated by a committee”.20 She expands on the way that sociologists use

the word ‘charisma’ by saying that the implication is that leaders classed as ‘charismatic’

possess special, possibly even divine powers and because of this the followers are quite

prepared to allow the leader to have authority over them. This authority can extend from

where they live, what they eat and with whom they have sexual or social relationships. 21

James Lewis makes the point that charismatic leaders are often the reason that members are

attracted to any one particular group. He also makes the valid point that whilst followers

appeal to the charismatic leader for legitimacy and belonging, the charismatic leaders often

appeal for legitimacy themselves. To achieve this they look to science, tradition or ancient

teachings in a search for an acknowledgement of legitimacy.22 Total devotion to charismatic

leaders eventually leads to a homogeneous belief system, as the belief structure would be

built on one person’s ideas. As the group develops, the teachings of the leader become open to

a greater interpretation, possibly leading to existing members leaving. The death of the leader

could have a greater significance to the group than his influence at its inception.23

First generation converts to NRMs are usually far more enthusiastic than members of the

institutionalised more established religions. This is due to the membership coming initially

from first-generation converts who by their very nature are enthusiastic, actively looking for

something new and usually have an average age of within the twenties age bracket. It is also

worth noting that due to the high turnover of members and that those leaving are slightly

older than the new converts, this age differential with society stays the same.24

18 ibid. p12-13.
19 ibid. p13.
20 Eileen Barker, op.cit. p13.
21 ibid. p13.
22 James R. Lewis Legitimising New Religions p13
23 David V. Barratt, op.cit. p58.
24 Eileen Barker, op.cit. p11-12.

6

What are New Religious Movements?

To assist in our understanding of what new religious movements are we will briefly analyse

the examples previously mentioned, Scientology, Jehovah’s witnesses and Heaven’s Gate and

by examining the typologies and characteristics found within these traditions discover how

they work in practise.

Scientology is probably the best known of all the self-help traditions. Its founder L. Ron

Hubbard developed ‘Dianetics’ as a way for humankind to free its inner self and to reach the

full potential that is available to everyone.25 It would neatly fit the world-affirming model.26

While at the same time, it would fit both the new self and new society groups as suggested by

Daschke & Ashcraft.27 Scientologists believe that you should only accept what you have

observed to be true; the individual needs to discover for him or her selves by applying the

principles and observing the result.28 Hubbard embodies the role of a charismatic leader as

suggested by James Lewis, not because of an individual charisma, but because he showed

evidence of a superior knowledge, insight, wisdom and that through him, his followers had

been able to advance themselves because of his teachings.29 This insight or advancement is

the salvation that Scientology provides to its followers.30 The organisation has also survived

the death of its founder and has continued to grow under the leadership of David Miscavige

expanding into many countries across the world.31

The Jehovah Witnesses were founded in 1871 by Charles Russell (1852-1916), following

publication of the first issue of ‘Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence’. Whilst

the inception of this tradition was well over 100 years ago, it is still considered a NRM. They

are a well-organised group that portray themselves to the world as a restoration of something

older, deriving from a religious tradition that has now become formalised.32 They are world

rejecting and in some ways world accommodating believing that a new world is imminent

and that existing religious traditions have lost their zeal.33 Due to their belief and expectation

25 Stephen J. Hunt Alternative Religions p194
26 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’, op.cit. p44-49.
27 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit. p12-13.
28 ‘Introduction’, ( http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/basic-principles-of-scientology/a-
description-of-scientology.html), (03/12/10).
29 James R. Lewis Legitimising New Religions p13
30 Peter Clarke, op.cit. p118.
31 David V. Barrett, op.cit. p470.
32 Stephen J. Hunt Alternative Religions p47-49
33 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’, op.cit. p44-49.

7

What are New Religious Movements?

regarding a new world order, they would be categorised within Daschke and Ashcraft’s new

world group.34 They have also survived the death of their founder and currently have a

presence in 236 countries across the world with over 7 million followers.35

Heaven’s Gate is unique when compared to other groups that have perpetrated violence such

as the Peoples Temple and the Branch Davidians. Loss of life was not caused by outside

forces or was not directed against non-members. The mass suicide was well organised and

readily (so it would seem) accepted by its members as the way to gain entry to a higher level

of existence. Formed by Marshall Applewhite they believed they were divine spirits trapped

with the human body. Similar to end of time Christian groups they were waiting, not for the

return of Christ, but a sign that they could move on. They believed that the arrival of the Hale

Bopp comet in 1997 heralded the end of time and the only route of salvation was to commit

suicide, in the belief that it would allow them to reach their higher level of existence, through

the intervention of a spacecraft hidden in the tail of the comet. 36 The group in some ways fits

into the world-rejecting model but at the same time fits into the world-affirming model as

they did want to apart from the world but also believed that their route to salvation was from

within themselves.37 Similarly, it would fit into several of Daschke and Ashcraft’s definitions,

the new understanding, new self and new world groups.38 Applewhite’s does not quite fit the

charismatic role described by Eileen Barker, as his followers were more interested in his

teachings.39 Unlike the two previously mentioned groups, this group has not survived the

death of its leader.40

So what exactly are NRMs? We have shown that the terminology, new religious movements

is far from satisfactory, possibly only of any real use as a way for academics to study groups

that do not seem to fit into the established traditions.41 We have looked at definitions offered

by various scholars and have looked at some of the common typologies used. First, the three

layer typology of Roy Walls.42 Second, the five tier typology of Dereck Daschke and Michael

34 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit.p13.
35 ‘Beliefs and Activities’, (http://www.watchtower.org/e/beliefs_and_activities.htm), (05/12/10).
36 David V. Barrett, op.cit. p91.
37 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’, op.cit. p36-49.
38 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit. p11-12.
39 Eileen Barker, op.cit. p13.
40 ‘Exit press release’, (http://heavensgate.com/misc/pressrel.htm), (29/11/10).
41 David V. Barrett, op.cit. p21-23.
42 Roy Wallis ‘Three Types of New Religious Movement’, op.cit. p36-55.

8

What are New Religious Movements?

Ashcraft.43 We have also looked at two key characteristics that apply themselves to NRMs.

First, the importance of the charismatic leader figure.44 Second, how the first generation

converts are unique to new movements.45 We have also looked at examples from some new

movements and have used them to show how the typologies and characteristics mentioned

can be applied. Daschke and Ashcraft suggest five groups but admit they could be used to

categorise existing religions; hence, there is a link between established religions and NRMs.46

Groups within NRMs exist completely on their own merits. At the very least, they make us re

think our definitions on what religions are and as such expand out parameters.47 If we were

going to research this question in more detail, it would be useful to look at the influence

exerted from Eastern traditions and in particular, it would be useful to compare the rise of

Eastern NRMs in the West and Western NRMs in the East.

Biblography.

Books.

Barker, Eileen., New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction, London: HMSO

Publications Centre, 1989.

Barrett, David., Sects, ‘Cults’ and Alternative Religions: A World Survey and Sourcebook:

London: Cassell Plc., 1998.

Barrett, David., The New Believers, New York: Casswell Plc., 2001.

Chryssides, George., & Greaves, Ron., The Study Of Religion: An Introduction to Key Ideas

and Methods, London, The Continuum International Publishing Group, 2007.

Clarke, Peter., New Religions in Global Perspective, Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.

Daschke, Dereck., & Ashcraft, Michael., ed. New Religious Movements: A Documentary

Reader, New York, New York University Press, 2005.

43 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit. p11-13.
44 James R. Lewis Legitimising New Religions p13
45 Eileen Barker, op.cit. p11-12.
46 Dereck Daschke & W. Michael Ashcraft, op.cit. p4.
47 Peter Clarke, o.cit. pxiv.

9

What are New Religious Movements?

Dawson, Lorne., ed., Cults and New Religious Movements: A Reader,Oxford, Blackwell

Publishing, 2003.

Hunt, Stephen., Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction, Aldershot: Ashgate

Publishing Co., 2004.

Lewis, James., Legitimating New Religions, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2003.

Partridge, Christopher., ed., Encylopedia of New Religions: New Religious Movements, Sects

and Alternative Spititualities, Oxford, Lion Publishing Plc., 2004.

Smart, Ninian., The World’s Religions, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Zablocki, Benjamin., & Robbins, Thomas., ed., Misunderstanding Cults, Toronto, University

of Toronto Press Incorporated, 2001.

Websites.

“Beliefs and Activities”, (http://www.watchtower.org/e/beliefs_and_activities.htm),

(05/12/10).

“Exit press release”, (http://heavensgate.com/misc/pressrel.htm), (29/11/10).

“Introduction”,(http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/basic-principles-of-

scientology/a-description-of-scientology.html), (03/12/10).