Scholarly Writing & Styles

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Issues in K-12 Education Case Study
Document 2

The following report highlights quantitative data measuring various educational outcomes
related to K-12 education. The data comes from authentic sources including the Labor of
Bureau , the National Assessment of Education Progress, and the Program for
International Student Assessment.

The information in the report is outlined as follows:

A. Educational Attainment
B. State Profiles
C. Nation’s Report Cards
D. International Benchmark Results
E. Socioeconomic Effects on Testing

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A. Educational Attainment

The following graph is based on a 2012 study from the Bureau of Labor . It shows the
effect that the level of education has on median earnings for persons ages 25 and over.

SOURCE:

Bureau of Labor . United States Labor (2013, December 19). Earnings and
unemployment rates by educational attainment. Retrieved from
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm

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B. State Profiles

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) supplies education data regarding
subject-matter achievement and instructional experiences for populations of students as well as
specific demographics within those populations. The NAEP is a continuing and nationally
representative measure of achievement.

Traditionally, states have had individual education standards. Consider the difference in state
education outcomes.

SOURCE:

National Center for Education . (2014). State profiles. Retrieved from
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/states/

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C. Nation’s Report Cards

The following statistics are results from the Nation’s Report Card. The Nation’s Report Card
communicates the findings of NAEP.

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SOURCE:

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The Nation’s Report Card. (2013). Are the nation’s students making progress in mathematics
and reading? Retrieved from
http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2013/#/performance-overview

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D. International Benchmark Results

The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is an international assessment that
measures 15-year-old students’ reading, mathematics, and science literacy. More information
about PISA and resources, including the PISA reports, PISA assessment frameworks, and
international data files, are available at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development website.

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U.S. Performance in Reading Literacy

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U.S. Performance in Reading Literacy
Exhibit 1 Description of PISA proficiency levels on combined reading literacy scale: 2009

Proficiency level
and lower cut

point score

Task description

Level 6

698

At level 6, tasks typically require the reader to make multiple inferences, comparisons and contrasts that
are both detailed and precise. They require demonstration of a full and detailed understanding of one or
more texts and may involve integrating information from more than one text. Tasks may require the
reader to deal with unfamiliar ideas, in the presence of prominent competing information, and to
generate abstract categories for interpretations. Reflect and evaluate tasks may require the reader to
hypothesize about or critically evaluate a complex text on an unfamiliar topic, taking into account multiple
criteria or perspectives, and applying sophisticated understandings from beyond the text. There is limited
data about access and retrieve tasks at this level, but it appears that a salient condition is precision of
analysis and fine attention to detail that is inconspicuous in the texts.

Level 5

626

At level 5, tasks involve retrieving information require the reader to locate and organize several pieces of
deeply embedded information, inferring which information in the text is relevant. Reflective tasks require
critical evaluation or hypothesis, drawing on specialized knowledge. Both interpretative and reflective
tasks require a full and detailed understanding of a text whose content or form is unfamiliar. For all
aspects of reading, tasks at this level typically involve dealing with concepts that are contrary to
expectations.

Level 4

553

At level 4, tasks involve retrieving information require the reader to locate and organize several pieces of
embedded information. Some tasks at this level require interpreting the meaning of nuances of language
in a section of text by taking into account the text as a whole. Other interpretative tasks require
understanding and applying categories in an unfamiliar context. Reflective tasks at this level require
readers to use formal or public knowledge to hypothesize about or critically evaluate a text. Readers
must demonstrate an accurate understanding of long or complex texts whose content or form may be
unfamiliar.

Level 3

480

At level 3, tasks require the reader to locate, and in some cases recognize the relationship between,
several pieces of information that must meet multiple conditions. Interpretative tasks at this level require
the reader to integrate several parts of a text in order to identify a main idea, understand a relationship
or construe the meaning of a word or phrase. They need to take into account many features in
comparing, contrasting or categorizing. Often the required information is not prominent or there is much
competing information; or there are other text obstacles, such as ideas that are contrary to expectation
or negatively worded. Reflective tasks at this level may require connections, comparisons, and
explanations, or they may require the reader to evaluate a feature of the text. Some reflective tasks
require readers to demonstrate a fine understanding of the text in relation to familiar, everyday
knowledge. Other tasks do not require detailed text comprehension but require the reader to draw on
less common knowledge.

Level 2

407

At level 2, some tasks require the reader to locate one or more pieces of information, which may need to
be inferred and may need to meet several conditions. Others require recognizing the main idea in a text,
understanding relationships, or construing meaning within a limited part of the text when the information
is not prominent and the reader must make low level inferences. Tasks at this level may involve
comparisons or contrasts based on a single feature in the text. Typical reflective tasks at this level
require readers to make a comparison or several connections between the text and outside knowledge,
by drawing on personal experience and attitudes.

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Level 1a 335 At level 1a, tasks require the reader to locate one or more independent pieces of explicitly stated
information; to recognize the main theme or author‘s purpose in a text about a familiar topic, or to make
a simple connection between information in the text and common, everyday knowledge. Typically the
required information in the text is prominent and there is little, if any, competing information. The reader
is explicitly directed to consider relevant factors in the task and in the text.

Level 1b 262 At level 1b, tasks require the reader to locate a single piece of explicitly stated information in a
prominent position in a short, syntactically simple text with a familiar context and text type, such as a
narrative or a simple list. The text typically provides support to the reader, such as repetition of
information, pictures or familiar symbols. There is minimal competing information. In tasks requiring
interpretation the reader may need to make simple connections between adjacent pieces of
information.

NOTE: To reach a particular proficiency level, a student must correctly answer a majority of items at that level. Students were classified into reading literacy
levels according to their scores. Exact cut point scores are as follows: below level 1b (a score less than or equal to 262.04);level 1b (a score greater than
262.04 and less than or equal to 334.75); level 1a (a score greater than 334.75 and less than or equal to 407.47); level 2 (a score greater than 407.47 and
less than or equal to 480.18); level 3 (a score greater than 480.18 and less than or equal to 552.89); level 4 (a score greater than 552.89 and less than or
equal to 625.61); level 5 (a score greater than 625.61 and less than or equal to 698.32); and level 6 (a score greater than 698.32).Scores are reported on a
scale from 0 to 1,000.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 2009

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U.S. Performance in Mathematics Literacy

Performance at PISA
Proficiency Levels
PISA’s six mathematics literacy proficiency
levels, ranging from 1 to 6, are described in
exhibit 2 (see appendix B for information about
how the proficiency are created).

Exhibit 2 Description of PISA proficiency levels on mathematics literacy scale: 2009

Proficiency level
and lower cut

point score

Task description

Level 6

669

At level 6,students can conceptualize, generalize, and utilize information based on their investigations
and modeling of complex problem situations. They can link different information sources and
representations and flexibly translate among them. Students at this level are capable of advanced
mathematical thinking and reasoning. These students can apply this insight and understandings along
with a mastery of symbolic and formal mathematical operations and relationships to develop new
approaches and strategies for attacking novel situations. Students at this level can formulate and
precisely communicate their actions and reflections regarding their findings, interpretations, arguments,
and the appropriateness of these to the original situations.

Level 5

607

At level 5,students can develop and work with models for complex situations, identifying constraints
and specifying assumptions. They can select, compare, and evaluate appropriate problem solving
strategies for dealing with complex problems related to these models. Students at this level can work
strategically using broad, well-developed thinking and reasoning skills, appropriate linked
representations, symbolic and formal characterizations, and insight pertaining to these situations.
They can reflect on their actions and formulate and communicate their interpretations and reasoning.

Level 4

545

At level 4,students can work effectively with explicit models for complex concrete situations that may
involve constraints or call for making assumptions. They can select and integrate different
representations, including symbolic ones, linking them directly to aspects of real-world situations.
Students at this level can utilize well-developed skills and reason flexibly, with some insight, in these
contexts. They can construct and communicate explanations and arguments based on their
interpretations, arguments, and actions.

Level 3

482

At level 3, students can execute clearly described procedures, including those that require
sequential decisions. They can select and apply simple problem solving strategies. Students at this
level can interpret and use representations based on different information sources and reason
directly from them. They can develop short communications reporting their interpretations, results
and reasoning.

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Level 2

420

At level 2,students can interpret and recognize situations in contexts that require no more than direct
inference. They can extract relevant information from a single source and make use of a single
representational mode. Students at this level can employ basic algorithms, formulae, procedures, or
conventions. They are capable of direct reasoning and making literal interpretations of the results.

Level 1

358

At level 1, students can answer questions involving familiar contexts where all relevant information
is present and the questions are clearly defined. They are able to identify information and to carry
out routine procedures according to direct instructions in explicit situations. They can perform
actions that are obvious and follow immediately from the given stimuli.

NOTE: To reach a particular proficiency level, a student must correctly answer a majority of items at that level. Students were classified into mathematics
literacy levels according to their scores. Cut point scores in the exhibit are rounded; exact cut point scores are provided in appendix B. Scores are reported
on a scale from 0 to 1,000.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 2009.

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U.S. Performance in Science Literacy

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Performance at
PISA Proficiency
Levels
PISA’s six science literacy proficiency levels,
ranging from 1 to 6, are described in exhibit 3
(see appendix B for information about how the
proficiency are created).

Exhibit 3. Description of PISA proficiency levels on science literacy scale: 2009

Proficiency level
and lower cut

point score

Task description

Level 6

708

At level 6, students can consistently identify, explain and apply scientific knowledge and knowledge
about science in a variety of complex life situations. They can link different information sources and
explanations and use evidence from those sources to justify decisions. They clearly and consistently
demonstrate advanced scientific thinking and reasoning, and they demon- strate willingness to use
their scientific understanding in support of solutions to unfamiliar scientific and technological situations.
Students at this level can use scientific knowledge and develop arguments in support of
recommendations and decisions that centre on personal, social or global situations.

Level 5

633

At level 5, students can identify the scientific components of many complex life situations, apply both
scientific concepts and knowledge about science to these situations, and can compare, select and
evaluate appropriate scientific evidence for responding to life situations. Students at this level can use
well-developed inquiry abilities, link knowledge appropriately and bring critical insights to situations.
They can construct explanations based on evidence and arguments based on their critical analysis.

Level 4

559

At level 4, students can work effectively with situations and issues that may involve explicit phenomena
requiring them to make inferences about the role of science or technology. They can select and
integrate explanations from different disciplines of science or technology and link those explanations
directly to aspects of life situations. Students at this level can reflect on their actions and they can
communicate decisions using scientific knowledge and evidence.

Level 3

484

At level 3, students can identify clearly described scientific issues in a range of contexts. They can
select facts and knowledge to explain phenomena and apply simple models or inquiry strategies.
Students at this level can interpret and use scientific concepts from different disciplines and can apply
them directly. They can develop short statements using facts and make decisions based on scientific
knowledge.

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Level 2

410

At level 2, students have adequate scientific knowledge to provide possible explanations in familiar
contexts or draw conclu- sions based on simple investigations. They are capable of direct reasoning
and making literal interpretations of the results of scientific inquiry or technological problem solving.

Level 1

335

At level 1, students have such a limited scientific knowledge that it can only be applied to a few,
familiar situations. They can present scientific explanations that are obvious and follow explicitly from
given evidence.

NOTE: To reach a particular proficiency level, a student must correctly answer a majority of items at that level. Students were classified into science
literacy levels according to their scores. Cut point scores in the exhibit are rounded; exact cut point scores are provided in appendix B. Scores are
reported on a scale from 0 to 1,000.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 2009.

SOURCE:

National Center for Education . (2010). Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2011004.

E. Socioeconomic Effects on Testing

Students’ eligibility for the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is used in NAEP as an
indicator
of family income. Students from lower-income families are eligible for either free or reduced-
price
school lunches, while students from higher-income families are not. Because of the improved
quality of the data on students’ eligibility in more recent years, results are only compared as far
back as 2003.

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SOURCE:
The Nation’s Report Card. (2012). Findings in brief reading and mathematics 2011. Retrieved
from
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:VnBacARUlpYJ:nces.ed.gov/
nationsreportcard/pdf/main2011/2012459.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us

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The Nation’s Report Card. (2012). Reading 2011. Retrieved from
http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_2011/reading_2011_report/

Public Education Network and National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education. (2004).
Standards and assessment. Retrieved from
http://www.ncpie.org/nclbaction/standards_assessment.html

References

Bureau of Labor , United States Labor . (2013). Earnings and
unemployment rates by educational attainment. Retrieved from
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm

National Center for Education . (2010, December 7). Highlights From PISA
2009: Performance of U.S. 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science
literacy in an international context. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2011004

National Center for Education . (2014). State profiles. Retrieved from
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/states/

The Nation’s Report Card. (2013). Are the nation’s students making progress in
mathematics and reading? Retrieved from
http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2013/#/performance-overview

The Nation’s Report Card. (2012). Findings in brief reading and mathematics 2011.
Retrieved from
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:VnBacARUlpYJ:nces.ed.gov/
nationsreportcard/pdf/main2011/2012459.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us

The Nation’s Report Card. (2012). Reading 2011. Retrieved from
http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_2011/reading_2011_report/

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2014). PISA 2012
results. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm

U.S. Performance in Mathematics Literacy
U.S. Performance in Science Literacy
Public Education Network and National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education. (2004). Standards and assessment. Retrieved from http://www.ncpie.org/nclbaction/standards_assessment.html