TerrorismandHomelandSecuritybyJonathanRWhitez-liborg.pdf

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N I N T H E D I T I O N

Jonathan R. White
Frederik Meijer Honors College
Grand Valley State University

Terrorism and
Homeland Security

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015

Terrorism and Homeland Security,
Ninth Edition,
Jonathan R. White

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Dedicated to:

Gabe and Sam, my buddies for life,

Do not repay evil for evil or abuse for abuse; but, on the contrary,
repay with a blessing. It is for this that you were called—that you
might inherit a blessing. 1 Peter 3:9

With love,
Paw Paw

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iv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

JONATHAN WHITE is professor of Interdisciplinary Studies in the Frederik Meijer Hon-
ors College of Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan. He also served
as an instructor in the Bureau of Justice Assistance, State and Local Anti-Terrorism
Training program for 15 years. He has lectured in the FBI Academy, in the Depart-
ment of State Anti-Terrorism Assistance program, in all branches of the U.S. Armed
Forces, and in law enforcement agencies throughout the world. The Founding Direc-
tor of GVSU’s School of Criminal Justice and former Dean of Social Science, he holds
a PhD in Criminal Justice and Criminology from Michigan State University and a
Master of Divinity from Western Theological Seminary.

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v

PA R T 1 Terrorism in Historical and Social Contexts 1
1 The Shifting Definition of Terrorism 2

2 Practical Criminology, Radicalization, and
Types of Terrorism 25

3 Terrorist Financing and Money Laundering 52

4 Terrorism and the Media 78

5 Force Multipliers, Gender Roles, and Tactics 101

PA R T 2 International Terrorism: National and Ethnic
Movements 123

6 Long-Term Separatist Terrorism 124

7 Nationalistic and Endemic Terrorism 148

8 Background to the Middle East 173

9 Terrorism in Israel and Palestine 196

PA R T 3 International Terrorism: Ideological and
Religious Movements 223

10 Revolutionary and Counterrevolutionary
Terrorism 224

11 Jihadist Networks 250

PA R T 4 Domestic Terrorism and Homeland Security 279
12 Domestic Terrorism 280

13 An Introduction to Homeland Security 302

14 Organizing Homeland Security 328

15 Homeland Security and Constitutional Issues 353

16 Enforcement, Homeland Security,
and the Future 375

BRIEf CONTENTS

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vii

CONTENTS

P R E FA C E x v i i

PA R T 1 Terrorism in Historical and Social
Contexts 1

1 The Shifting Definition of Terrorism 2
Difficulties with Definitions 3

Definitions Influenced by Social Context 3
The Importance of Defining Terrorism 4

Attempts to Define Terrorism 5
Definitions and Policy 5
An Insurmountable Problem? 6

Shifts of Meanings in History 7
The Origins of Terrorism in Western History 8
The French Revolution 9
Guerrillas and the Spanish Peninsula 9

1848 and the Radical Democrats 9
Socialists 11
Anarchists 12
Violent Anarchism 12
Anarchism and Nationalism 13

Terrorism and Revolution in Russia, 1881–1921 15
The People’s Will 15
Czar Nicholas and the Revolutions of 1905 and 1917 16
Lenin and Trotsky 17

Selective Terrorism and the Birth of the Irish Republic 17
The Early Irish Republican Army 19
The Easter Rising 20
The Black and Tan War, 1920–1921 21
Selective Terror 21

Emphasizing the Points 22
Summary of Chapter Objectives 22
Key Terms 24

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viii ConTEnTs

2 Practical Criminology, Radicalization, and
Types of Terrorism 25
The Criminology of Terrorism 26

Differences Between Criminals and Terrorists 27

Radicalization 29
Practical Criminology and Radicalism 29
The Process of Radicalization 30
Testing Radicalization with Recent Case Studies 32
Other Cases of Radicalization 34
Commonalities in Radicalization 36
Individual Journeys 37

Two Views of Prison Radicalization 38
The Process of Radicalization in Prison 38
Questioning Prison Radicalization 39

Rejecting the Term 41
Types of Terrorism 42

Lone Wolves 43
Small Groups and Urban Terrorism 44
Guerrillas and Large Group Terrorism 47
Response to Differing Types of Terrorism 49

Emphasizing the Points 49
Summary of Chapter Objectives 50
Key Terms 51

3 Terrorist financing and Money
Laundering 52
Financial Flows 53

Money Laundering 53
Terrorist Financing 56
Comparing Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing 57
Toward a Theory of Terrorist Financing 58

Efforts to Control Terrorist Financing 59
Regulation and Enforcement 60
Efforts by the United Nations 61

Financial Information as an Investigative
and Intelligence Tool 63

Illegal Funding Methods 64
Legal Methods of Raising Funds 66

Underground Networks and Systems 66
The Hawala System 68
Hezbollah as an Example 69

The Political Economy of Terrorism 70
Narcoterrorism 72

The Link Between Drugs and Terrorism 73
Narcoterrorism Controversies 74

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ConTEnTs ix

Emphasizing the Points 75
Summary of Chapter Objectives 75
Key Terms 77

4 Terrorism and the Media 78
The New Media Environment 79

Defining the New Media 79
Characteristics of the New Media 80
The New Media and the Internet 81
Other Aspects of the Internet 82

Trends in Research 85
A Set of Empirical Findings on Twitter 85
Televised Gender Stereotypes 86

The Media and Socially Constructed Reality 86
News Frames and Presentations 87
Types of Frames 87
Ambiguous Stories and News Frames 88
Neglecting the Domestic Front 88
Terrorism and Television 89
End of the Western Monopoly on the Old News Media 91

Issues in the Media 92
Biases in the Old Media 92
Creating Critical Reflection in the Audience 95

Censorship Debates 97
Emphasizing the Points 99
Summary of Chapter Objectives 99
Key Terms 100

5 force Multipliers, Gender Roles, and
Tactics 101
Tactics and Force Multipliers 102
Technology 103

Cyberterrorism 104
WMD: Biological Agents 105
WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons 106

Nuclear Terrorism 109
Economic Targeting and Transnational Attacks 111

Tourism 111
Energy 112
Transportation 113

Suicide Attacks: Conflicting Opinions 114
A Theory of Suicide Terrorism 114
Other Research on Suicide Bombing 116
Models for Suicide Bombing 117

Tactical Misunderstandings and Gender 117

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x ConTEnTs

Tactical Roles and Organization 118
Tactical Considerations 119
Overlooking Female Terrorists: A Tactical Mistake 119

Emphasizing the Points 121
Summary of Chapter Objectives 121
Key Terms 122

PA R T 2 International Terrorism: National and Ethnic
Movements 123

6 Long-Term Separatist Terrorism 124
Ethnic and Nationalist Separatist Movements 125

Characteristics of Ethnic and Nationalist Terrorism 125
Three Cases of Ethnic and Nationalist Separatism 126

Modern Terrorism in Northern Ireland 127
The IRA and the Modern “Troubles” 128
The Army and Overreaction 129
Unionist Terrorism 131

Negotiating a Peace Settlement in Ireland 132
Negotiating with Terrorists 132
Rational Political Goals and Negotiated Settlements 133

The Basque Nation and Liberty 133
Background 134
The Spanish Civil War 135
Twentieth-Century Basque Nationalism 135
The ETA Turns to Terrorism 136
ETA Tactics and Spanish Death Squads 137
Reframing the Conflict 138

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam 139
The Origins of Tamil Dissatisfaction 140
Sri Lanka and the Tamil Tigers 141
LTTE Tactics 141
Fighting Renewed 143
Government Repression after Victory 144

Emphasizing the Points 145
Summary of Chapter Objectives 145
Key Terms 147

7 Nationalistic and Endemic Terrorism 148
Nationalistic Terrorism 149

Cyprus, 1955–1959 149
The Battle for Algiers, 1954–1962 151
The Mau Mau in Kenya, 1950–1960 153

Turkey 155
Turkey’s Struggle with Terrorism 155

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ConTEnTs xi

The Kurdistan Workers’ Party and Its Alter Egos 156

China’s Problems in Xinjiang 160
Sikh Separatism in India 162
Endemic Ethnic Terror in Sub-Saharan Africa 162
Conditions in Nigeria 163
Boko Haram and Ansaru 165

Al Shabab’s Regional Jihad 167

Emphasizing the Points 171
Summary of Chapter Objectives 171
Key Terms 172

8 Background to the Middle East 173
Defining the Middle East 174
A Brief Introduction to Islam 175

The Centrality of Mohammed’s Revelation 175
Creating the Muslim Community at Medina 176
The Shi’ite–Sunni Split 176
The Golden Age of Arabs 178

Synopsis of Traditional Middle Eastern Issues 180
Three Sources of Violence in the Middle East 181
The Early Zionist Movement in Palestine 182
World War I and Contradictory Promises 183
The Birth of Israel 184
Arab Power Struggles and Arab–Israeli Wars 185
The Return of Terrorism 188

Iran 189
Uniquely Persian 189
British Influence and Control 190
Prelude to the 1979 Revolution 190
The Revolution 191
The Call to Karbala 193

Emphasizing the Points 194
Summary of Chapter Objectives 194
Key Terms 195

9 Terrorism in Israel and Palestine 196
Messy Definition 197

Fatah and the Six-Day War 197
The 1982 Invasion of Lebanon 200

Factionalism in Palestinian Terrorism 200
Major Groups 201

Hezbollah: Local and International 204
The Origins of Hezbollah 204
Hezbollah’s Operational Capabilities 209

Hamas and the Rise of Sunni Religious Organizations 212

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xii ConTEnTs

An Overview of Hamas 212
Struggles for Leadership 212
The al Aqsa Intifada 213
Seeking Election 213
Hamas Versus Fatah 214
Rockets and Operation Cast Lead 215
Unity? 215

Fatah Restructured: The al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades 216
Effective Tactics 216
Leadership of the Martyrs Brigades 217
Beginning a Network 217

Controversial Counterterrorist Policies 219
Bulldozing 219
Invading Lebanon 220
The Wall 220
Selective Assassination 220

Emphasizing the Points 221
Summary of Chapter Objectives 221
Key Terms 222

PA R T 3 International Terrorism: Ideological and
Religious Movements 223

10 Revolutionary and  Counterrevolutionary
Terrorism 224
Revolutionary Terrorism 225

Revolutionary and Counterrevolutionary Terrorism Defined 225
Modeling Revolutionary Terrorism: Uruguay’s Tupamaros 226
Urban Guerrillas 228
Counterrevolutionary Terrorism 229
Early Successes 229
Tupamaro Organization 230
Influencing Modern Terrorism 232

Examples of Modern Revolutionary Terrorism 233
FARC 233
The ELN 236
The MeK 238

Maoist Revolutionary Terrorism 239
Peru’s Shining Path 240
Naxalites of India 241
The New People’s Army 244

Death Squads and Counterrevolutionaries 245
Emphasizing the Points 248
Summary of Chapter Objectives 248
Key Terms 249

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ConTEnTs xiii

11 Jihadist Networks 250
Jihadi Salafism 251
Militant Scholars and Strategists 252

Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyya 252
Mohammed ibn Abdul Wahhab 253
Sayyid Qutb 253
Abu Musab al Suri 254
Abu Bakr Naji 254
When Do Jihadi Salafists Become Devout? 255

Al Qaeda from Inception to 9/11 256
Osama bin Laden, Ayman al Zawahiri, and al Qaeda 256
Declaring War on Americans, Jews, and Crusaders 259

Al Qaeda: Degraded, Transformed, and Franchised 259
Major Franchises Swearing Fealty to al Qaeda Core 261
Conflict in the Franchise: Jabhat al Nusra and ISIS 265
The Islamic State of Iraq 266
ISI Reborn 267
Jabhat al Nusra 267
ISIS 268
ISIS and the Caliphate 268
Conflict within the Jihad 269
Foreign Fighters 269

A Survey of Other Groups 270
Lashkar-e-Taiba 270
The Pakistani Taliban 271
Thailand 273
Jihadi Salafism in Indonesia 274
Jihadi Salafism in the Philippines 275

Emphasizing the Points 276
Summary of Chapter Objectives 276
Key Terms 278

PA R T 4 Domestic Terrorism and Homeland
Security 279

12 Domestic Terrorism 280
The Meaning of Domestic Terrorism 281

Growing Clarity 281
Extremism Versus Terrorism 282
Categorizing Domestic Terrorism 282

Racism and Terrorism 284
Violent White Supremacy Movements 284
American’s Most Successful Terrorist Group 286

Violent Right-Wing Extremism 286
Antigovernment Extremism 287
Sovereign Citizens 287

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xiv ConTEnTs

Contemporary Right-Wing Behavior, Beliefs, and Tactics 288
The Turner Diaries and Hunter: Blueprints for Revolution 289
Resurgent Violent Right-Wing Extremism 290

Shifting from Left-Wing Violence to Single Issues 291
The Demise of the Left 291
The Rise of Single Issues 292
Ecoterrorism, Animal Rights, and Genetic Engineering 292
Antiabortion Violence 294

Homegrown Jihadists 296
Emphasizing the Points 299
Summary of Chapter Objectives 300
Key Terms 301

13 An Introduction
to Homeland Security 302
Many Meanings of Homeland Security 303

Defining and Evaluating a Mission 303
Security Missions 304

Agencies Charged with Preventing
and Interdicting Terrorism 305

The Department of Homeland Security 305
The Department of Justice 307
The Department of Defense 307
The Intelligence Community 308
State and Local Enforcement 309

Building Intelligence Systems 309
The Intelligence Process 309
National Security and Criminal Intelligence 310
A Checkered Past 311
Domestic Intelligence Networks 313
Fusion Centers 314
Fusion Center Intelligence 315
U.S. Attorneys and JTTFs 316

Issues in Homeland Security 317
Enforcement’s Special Role 317
The Role of Symbols and Structures 318
Planning for Homeland Security 319
Creating a Culture of Information Sharing 320

Intelligence Reform 322
Moving in the Right Direction? 322
Redirecting the Focus of Reform 323
Target-Based Analysis 324
The Need for Reform Questioned 324

Emphasizing the Points 325
Summary of Chapter Objectives 325
Key Terms 327

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ConTEnTs xv

14 Organizing Homeland Security 328
Bureaucratic Complexity 329

The Impact of Bureaucracy 329
The Numbers Problem 329
Reforming Bureaucracy 330

Bureaucratic Problems 331
Federal Rivalries 331
FBI Versus Locals 331
Local Control and Revenue Sources 332
Legal Bureaucracy 332

Bureaucratic Solutions 333
Preparing for Successful Enforcement Processes 334
New Approaches to the Enforcement Mission 335

Bureaucracies Against Terrorism 336
Intelligence and Bureaucracy 336
State and Local Enforcement Bureaucracies 338

Border Protection 340
Policy Disputes 341
The Immigration Debate 342
Border Security: Critique and Reform 344

Infrastructure Protection 346
Private Versus Governmental Partnerships 346
The Need for Private Partnerships 347
Government Partnerships 347
The Federal Mission 348
Expanding Local Roles 348
Thinking Internationally 349

Responding to Disasters 350
Emphasizing the Points 350
Summary of Chapter Objectives 351
Key Terms 352

15 Homeland Security and Constitutional
Issues 353
Security and Civil Liberties 354
Security and Civil Liberties Trade-Offs 355

Human Rights and Civil Liberties 356

Domestic Intelligence 357
The USA PATRIOT Acts of 2001, 2005, 2006, 2011,
and 2015 357
Debate and the 2006 358
Extending Provisions in 2011 359
Controversy Continued 359
Debate in 2015 360
The USA FREEDOM Act of 2015 361

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xvi ConTEnTs

Terrorism and the Constitution 361
Separation of Powers 362
Terrorism and the Bill of Rights 362
Fear of Enforcement Power 363
Increased Executive Powers 364
Executive Power and the Courts 366

Civil Liberties and Police Work 367
Controversies in Enforcement 367
National Security and Crime 368
Intelligence, Networks, and Roles 369
Emerging Critiques in the Academic Community 371

Emphasizing the Points 372
Summary of Chapter Objectives 373
Key Terms 374

16 Enforcement, Homeland Security,
and the future 375
Homeland Security and Community Policing 376

Support for Homeland Security through Community
Policing 377
Shifting Police Roles 378
Community Partnerships and the Future 380
The Style of Future Policing 380

Militarization and Police Work 381
The Problem of Militarization 381
Obtaining Military Equipment 383
Militarization and the “War on Drugs” 384

Future Information Sharing 385
Multilevel Communication and Sharing 385
Overcoming Barriers to Sharing 386
The Private Industry Problem 387

Future Terrorist Tactics 390
Swarming and Multiple Attacks 390
Blending Criminal and Terrorist Networks 392
Other Tactical Trends 393

Emphasizing the Points 396
Summary of Chapter Objectives 396
Key Terms 398

GlossARy 399

WoRks CiTEd 419

indEx 455

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xvii

PREfACE

I began work on the first edition of this book 30 years ago and have reworked it
several times to describe constant changes in causes, groups, tactics, and issues. Ter-
rorists constantly employ new methods of murder and destruction as the face of ter-
rorism changes. Yet, no matter how terrorism mutates, one aspect remains constant.
Technology provides the means for a relatively small group of violent people to ter-
rorize nation-states, including superpowers.

Professors who have used previous editions of this book have asked for changes
and updates to this text. In addition, they have offered valuable critiques, suggestions
for new material, and corrections of factual errors. Many of them asked me to reduce
historical coverage and to increase discussions of trends and future directions. I hope
this new addition meets their expectations, although I do utilize historical discussions
to place contemporary events and probable future issues in context.

While this is a new edition, the purpose of the book remains the same. It is de-
signed to introduce criminal justice and other social science students to the field of
terrorism and homeland security. The book is also meant to provide a pragmatic
background for the law enforcement, intelligence, and military communities. It is a
basic, practical introduction for people who will or already do face the threat of
terrorism. Many theories, polemics, and models are summarized and compared, but
readers will find no grand theory. The purpose is to expose readers to a vast array of
issues, campaigns, theories, and opinions.

As stated in the previous editions, issues surrounding terrorism are emotionally
charged. Therefore, the information in this text is presented from a variety of posi-
tions. The purpose is to explain various points of view without taking sides. Students
are exposed to differing interpretations of issues that have spawned heated contro-
versies. Hopefully, the text presents enough information to allow students to make
informed decisions.

Overview
This text is designed to provide readers with basic information. The purpose is to
provide the background for understanding terrorist movements …