This is the focus:Behavior Analysis (previously known as behaviorism) SEE articles are attached below

172 asrt.org/publications

Editorial

Learning Theories: Behaviorism
Kevin R Clark, EdD, R.T.(R)(QM)

I
n its simplest form, learning is defined as gaining
knowledge through study, teaching, instruction, or
experience.1 Interestingly, learning is described and
viewed differently by theorists, researchers, and

practitioners who have spent time investigating and
experimenting in the educational psychology field.1,2
The differences in how educational theorists believe
individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge result-
ed in the development of multiple learning theories.1-3
Based on the context of the theorists’ work and other
factors at the time of investigation, these theories
explain how learning occurs, what internal or external
factors inf luence learning, how memory affects learn-
ing, and how transfer of knowledge occurs.1-3 In addi-
tion, the roles of the instructors and learners are
described according to each theory of learning. A basic
understanding of the various learning theories is essen-
tial for educators who strive to lead a classroom that is
conducive to learning and success.

The ideas of behaviorism date back to the late
19th and early 20th centuries when John Watson, an
American psychologist, believed the general public
would accept and recognize the new philosophy of psy-
chology as a true science only if it involved processes
of objective observation and scientific measurement.1
This notion of detailed observation and measurement
became central to the work of behaviorists.1

Behaviorism emphasizes that learning occurs when
an individual responds favorably to some type of

external stimuli.1-4 Behaviorism sometimes is referred
to as the stimulus-response theory.1 For example, when
presented with a math f lashcard showing the equation
6 3 8, the learner responds with the answer 48. The
equation is the stimulus, and the answer is the associ-
ated response.2 Essential elements with behaviorism
include the stimulus, the response, and the association
between these 2 elements.2 Of particular importance
is how the association between the stimulus and the
response is made, strengthened, and maintained.2

Behaviorists define learning as nothing more than
the acquisition of new behaviors. Behaviorists do not
emphasize thinking or other mental activities as a part
of the learning process because such variables are not
observable behaviors.1-4 Although the behaviorism
theory discounts any mental activity, other educational
theorists considered these processes to be a vital part of
learning and cognition, which resulted in the develop-
ment of other theories of learning.1,4 Behaviorists do not
address memory and how new behaviors or changes
in behaviors are stored or recalled for future use.2
Behaviorists refer to this type of learning, where a reac-
tion is made to a particular stimulus, as conditioning.1
Two main types of conditioning include Pavlov’s classi-
cal conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, noticed that dogs

salivated every time they ate or saw food and believed

173RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2018, Volume 90, Number 2

Editorial
Clark

bowling alley.1 Skinner made generalizations about his
findings with rats and pigeons to humans.1 In addition,
he noted that operant conditioning also worked in a
negative way: stopping a behavior from occurring by
punishing it.1,3

Reinforcement and Punishment
Key aspects of operant conditioning include rein-

forcement and punishment, both of which can be
positive or negative. Reinforcement refers to anything
that has the effect of strengthening a particular behav-
ior for it to occur again.1,3 Positive reinforcement is the
addition of a rewarding stimulus to get the behavior to
happen again (eg, rewarding learners for making a high
grade on an exam in hopes they study harder for future
assessments and score high again). Negative reinforce-
ment is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to get the
behavior to continue (eg, students learning the rules to
solve a particular problem so their instructor quits nag-
ging them about the importance of it). The unpleasant
behavior of the instructor’s nagging is removed when
students learn the rules, solve the problem correctly,
and continue the action so the nagging does not return.

Conversely, punishment refers to anything that
has an effect of lessening or discouraging a particular
behavior so that it does not occur again.1,3 Positive pun-
ishment is the addition of an unpleasant stimulus to get
the behavior to stop; any type of disciplinary action is
considered positive punishment. Negative punishment
is the removal of a rewarding stimulus to get the behav-
ior to stop (eg, not offering extra credit opportunities in
hopes the behavior stops so that the learners can receive
these beneficial opportunities in the future). Skinner
maintained that rewards and punishments control most
human behaviors.1-3

In addition to Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner, other
theorists were associated with the behaviorist move-
ment. The Table summarizes their contributions to the
theory of behaviorism.

Implications in Teaching and Learning
Behaviorists believe learning begins when a cue

or stimulus from the environment is presented, and
the learner reacts to the stimulus with some type of
response.1-3 Those responses are reinforced or punished,

he could condition the dogs to salivate at the sound of
a bell.1 Initially, Pavlov sounded a bell at the time food
was presented to the dogs and repeated this process
frequently.1 Eventually, the sound of the bell became
an indication to the dogs that food was about to be pre-
sented, and they responded by salivating at the sound
of the bell regardless of whether food was presented.1
This type of reinforcement of a natural ref lex or some
involuntary behavior that occurs as a response to a par-
ticular stimulus is called classical conditioning.1 Pavlov
was able to condition the dogs to salivate in response to
the sound of the bell.

Pavlov identified 4 stages of classical conditioning:
acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimina-
tion.1 The acquisition stage is the initial learning of
the conditioned response (the dogs salivating at the
sound of the bell).1 Pavlov believed the conditioned
response would not remain indefinitely, so he used the
term extinction to describe the disappearance of a con-
ditioned response.1 Pavlov demonstrated extinction by
repeatedly sounding the bell without presenting food
to the dogs.1 The final 2 stages, generalization and dis-
crimination, are opposites and explain how behaviorists
believe knowledge is transferred within learners.2 The
generalization stage implies that a conditioned response
might occur with similar stimuli without further train-
ing (the dogs salivating at the sound of something
similar to a bell).1 In contrast, the discrimination stage
indicates that a conditioned response might occur with
1 stimulus but not with another (the dogs not salivating
at the sound of something similar to a bell).1

Operant Conditioning
BF Skinner, a psychologist working in the United

States in the 1930s, established the theory of oper-
ant conditioning: a process of reinforcing a voluntary
behavior by rewarding it.1,3 Studying the behaviors of
rats, Skinner used a device (now called a Skinner box)
that contained a lever.1 W henever the rats pressed the
lever (an action Skinner considered normal, random,
and voluntary), a pellet of food was presented.1 As the
food rewards continued during the repetition of the
action, the rats learned that they had to press the lever
to be fed.1 Skinner also used reinforcement techniques
to teach pigeons to dance and to roll a ball down a mini

174 asrt.org/publications

Editorial
Learning Theories: Behaviorism

the reinforcement of appropriate classroom behaviors,
which can create a more orderly classroom environment
that is conducive to learning and success for all.1

Learning Activities
Classroom learning activities connected to the

behaviorism theory include1-3:
� lecturing
� recalling facts
� defining and illustrating concepts
� applying explanations
� participating in rote learning (ie, memorization

based on repetition)
� completing drill and practice exercises
� establishing classroom management policies
� using rewards and punishments

Implications in Medical Imaging Education
In medical imaging education, lecturing is a domi-

nant approach to presenting information because of
the complexity of the content. Considering time man-
agement issues and restrictions in higher education,
lecturing affords instructors an opportunity to pres-
ent a large amount of information to a large audience.
Often, medical imaging students memorize some of the
content presented and recall that knowledge during an
exam. The role of repetition aids in the learning of new
and challenging content. Medical imaging students
benefit from drill and practice exercises when working
with formulas, including the Inverse-Square , the
milliampere-seconds–distance compensation formula,

and this process is repeated so that the responses
become automatic.3 Ultimately, the change in behav-
ior indicates learning has occurred.3 As revealed,
behaviorism has little regard for mental processes or
understanding and, therefore, does not prepare learners
for problem-solving or critical-thinking skills.1-3

The instructor plays a dominant role in behaviorism
by leading the learning environment, using positive and
negative reinforcement to shape learners’ behaviors,
and presenting the content.1 With behaviorism, learn-
ers are described as passive individuals who voluntarily
respond to external stimuli.1 Other behaviorist implica-
tions in teaching and learning include1:

� creating procedures and expectations to manage
the classroom

� using rewards as incentives for learners to work
hard and behave

� using punishments (eg, loss of privileges or with-
holding of rewards) effectively and sparingly to
change learners’ behaviors

Critics of behaviorism argue that rewards can belittle
or demean a learning experience and, therefore, should
be used with caution.1 Often, rewards can evoke feel-
ings of unfairness or competition, and some learners
might become distracted from the real issue involved
in completing a task or learning new material.1 Using a
rewards system or giving 1 learner increased attention
might have a detrimental effect on others in the class or
cause them to feel isolated.1 Not surprisingly, rewards
do not always lead to higher-quality work; however,
using a behaviorist approach, rewards can result in

Table

Key Theorists and Their Contributions to Behaviorism1

Theorists Contribution

Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning

Edward Thorndike Connectionism (emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of stimulus-response
connections)

John Watson Scientific objectivity; of frequency (the more frequent a stimulus and response occur in association with
each other, the stronger the habit will become)

Edwin Guthrie Contiguity (the same response to a stimulus most likely will occur over and over again during repeated expo-
sures)

BF Skinner Operant conditioning

175RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2018, Volume 90, Number 2

Editorial
Clark

and the grid conversion formula, as well as calculations
involving skin dose. Medical imaging instructors ben-
efit from using a behaviorist approach by implementing
a classroom management plan to lead a classroom con-
ducive to learning and success.

Conclusion
The theory of behaviorism can be illustrated by

the adage, “practice makes perfect.” Behaviorists see
learning as an observable change in behavior as a result
of experience and repetition. This stimulus-response
theory makes no attempt to assess the mental processes
necessary for learners to acquire, retain, and recall
information. The change in behavior is simply achieved
through a conditioning process using reinforcement
and punishment. Even though little importance is
placed on mental activity, concept formation, or under-
standing, there is a place for behaviorism in today’s
classrooms, especially in medical imaging education, in
the areas of rote learning and classroom management.

Kevin R Clark, EdD, R.T.(R)(QM), is assistant
professor and graduate coordinator for the School of Health
Professions at The University of Texas MD Anderson
Cancer Center in Houston. He serves on the Radiologic
Technology Editorial Review Board and can be reached at
[email protected].

References
1. Pritchard A. Behaviourism and the beginnings of theory. In:

Ways of Learning – Learning Theories and Learning Styles in
the Classroom. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge; 2014:6-17.

2. Ertmer PA, Newby TJ. Behaviorism, cognitivism, construc-
tivism: comparing critical features from an instructional
design perspective. Perform Improv Q. 2013;26(2):43-71.
doi:10.1002/piq.21143.

3. Kelly J. Learning theories. The Peak Performance Center
website. http://thepeakperformancecenter.com/education
al-learning/learning/theories/. Published September 2012.
Accessed June 10, 2017.

4. David L. Behaviorism. Learning Theories website. https://
www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html. Published
January 31, 2007. Accessed June 10, 2017.

https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21143

Copyright of Radiologic Technology is the property of American Society of Radiologic
Technologists and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use.