write 4 pages for chapter 7-9 a reaction paper/agree or disagree with some of the concepts

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1853
1838

1851

1850

18471828

1825 1841

New York Juvenile Asylum started
by the Children’s Aid Society.

Ex Parte Crouse—Parens patriae
concept relied on. The right of the
parent is not inalienable.

The first adoption act in the
United States is passed in
Massachusetts.

The House of Refuge in
Philadelphia closes.

State institutions for juvenile delinquents
open in Boston and New York.

Boston House of Refuge
is founded.

New York House of Refuge
is founded.

John Augustus, first official
probation officer in the United
States, begins work in Boston.

18201820 18301830 18401840 18501850 18601860

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18701870 18801880 18901890 19001900 19101910

18991875–1900

1870 1897

1891

1890

18891868

1886

1884

1881

Illinois Juvenile
Court Act.

Case begins to deal with
protective statutes.

Illinois Supreme Court reverses Dan O’Connell’s
vagrancy sentence to the Chicago Reform School due
to lack of due process procedures in People v. Tu rner.

Ex Parte Becknell, a California
decision that reverses the
sentence of a juvenile who has
not been given a jury trial.

Supreme Court of Minnesota establishes
the doctrine of parental immunity.

Children’s Aid Society of Pennsylvania, a foster home
for the juvenile delinquent used as an alternative to
reform schools, is established.

Board of children’s guardians is
established in Indiana and given
jurisdiction over neglected and
dependent children.

Passage of the Fourteenth Amendment
to the U.S. Constitution.

First neglect case is heard in Massachusetts.

The state assumes the authority to take neglected
children and place them in an institution. See
Reynolds v. Howe, 51 Conn. 472, 478 (1884).

Michigan begins child protection with
the Michigan Public Acts of 1881.

1866
Massachusetts establishes that the state
has power over children under 16 whose
parents are “unfit.”

1908

1906

1905

1903–1905

1910

Ex Parte Sharpe defines more clearly
the role of the juvenile court to include
parens patriae.

Legislation establishes juvenile justice
in Canada (Juvenile Delinquents Act)
and in England (Children Act).

Massachusetts passes an act to provide for
the treatment of children not as criminals but
as children in need of guidance and aid.

Commonwealth v. Fisher—Pennsylvania
Court upholds the constitutionality of the
Juvenile Court Act.

Many other states pass juvenile court acts.

Compulsory
school acts.

Ph
ot

os
p

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vi

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by
th

e
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1930

1918

1924

Children’s Charter.

Chicago area studies are
conducted by Shaw and
McKay.

Federal Probation Act.
1954

continued on back endsheets…

1959

Brown v. Board of Education,
a major school desegregation
decision.

Standard Family Court Act
of National Council on
Crime and Delinquency
establishes that juvenile
hearings are to be informal.

19201920 19301930 19401940 19501950 19601960

AP
Im

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es

/W
ill

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Ar

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Juvenile
Delinquency

THEORY, PRACTICE, AND LAW

THIRTEENTH EDITION

LARRY J. SIEGEL
University of Massachusetts, Lowell

BRANDON C. WELSH
Northeastern University

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

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© 2018, 2015 Cengage

Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as permitted by
U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

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Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Practice,
and , Thirteenth Edition
Larry J. Siegel and Brandon C. Welsh

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D E D I C A T I O N

To my wife, Therese J. Libby, and my children, Julie,
Andrew, Eric, and Rachel, my grandchildren, Jack,
Kayla, and Brooke, and my sons-in-law Jason Macy
and Patrick Stephens.
—L.J.S.

To my wife, Jennifer, and our son, Ryan
—B.C.W.

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v

Larry J. Siegel
Larry J. Siegel was born in the Bronx, New York. While living on Jerome Avenue
and attending City College of New York in the 1960s, he was swept up in the social
and political currents of the time. He became intrigued with the influence contem-
porary culture had on individual behavior. Did people shape society or did society
shape people? He applied his interest in social forces and human behavior to the
study of crime and justice. After graduating from CCNY, he attended the newly
opened program in criminal justice at the State University of New York at Albany,
earning both his MA and PhD degrees there. After completing his graduate work,
Dr. Siegel spent nine years at Northeastern University and also held teaching posi-
tions at the University of Nebraska–Omaha and Saint Anselm College in New
Hampshire before joining the faculty at the University of Massachusetts–Lowell,
where he now serves as Professor Emeritus. Dr. Siegel has written extensively in
the area of crime and justice, including books on juvenile law, delinquency, crimi-
nology, criminal justice, and criminal procedure. He teaches courses in criminal
justice, criminology, and delinquency at both the undergrad and grad level. He is a
court-certified expert on police conduct and has testified in numerous legal cases.
The parents of four and grandparents of three, Larry and his wife, Terry, reside in
Naples, Florida.

Brandon C. Welsh
Brandon C. Welsh is a Professor of Criminology at Northeastern University and
Senior Research Fellow at the Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and
Enforcement in Amsterdam. He received his undergraduate and MA degrees
at the University of Ottawa and his PhD from Cambridge University in England.
His research interests focus on the prevention of crime and delinquency and
evidence-based crime policy. Dr. Welsh has published extensively in these areas
and is an author or editor of 10 books.

About the
Authors

La
rry

J
. S

ie
ge

l
Br

an
do

n
C.

W
el

sh

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vii

Brief Contents

part one
The Concept of Delinquency 1

Chapter 1 Childhood and Delinquency 2

Chapter 2 The Nature and Extent of Delinquency 42

part two
Theories of Delinquency 77

Chapter 3 Individual Views of Delinquency 78

Chapter 4 Structure, Process, Culture, and Delinquency 136

Chapter 5 Social Reaction, Social Conflict, and Delinquency 182

Chapter 6 Developmental Theories of Delinquency:
Life-Course, Propensity, and Trajectory 214

part three
Social, Community, and Environmental Influences on Delinquency 251

Chapter 7 Gender and Delinquency 252

Chapter 8 The Family and Delinquency 286

Chapter 9 Peers and Delinquency: Juvenile Gangs and Groups 328

Chapter 10 Schools and Delinquency 380

Chapter 11 Drug Use and Delinquency 418

Chapter 12 Delinquency Prevention: Social and Developmental Perspectives 452

part four
The Juvenile Justice System 487

Chapter 13 Juvenile Justice: Then and Now 488

Chapter 14 Police Work with Juveniles 520

Chapter 15 Juvenile Court Process: Pretrial, Trial, and Sentencing 554

Chapter 16 Juvenile Corrections: Probation, Community Treatment, and Institutionalization 592

Chapter 17 Delinquency and Juvenile Justice Abroad 634

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ix

Contents

Preface xvii

1 Childhood and Delinquency 2
The Adolescent Dilemma 4

Adolescent Problems 5

Problems in Cyberspace 10

CYBER DELINQUENCY: Sextortion: Sexual Extortion on
the Net 12

Teen Suicide 13

Are Things Improving? 13

The Study of Juvenile Delinquency 14
The Development of Childhood 15

Childhood in the Middle Ages 16

Development of Concern for Children 18

Childhood in America 20

The Concept of Delinquency 21
Delinquency and Parens Patriae 22
The Legal Status of Delinquency 22

Legal Responsibility of Youth 23

Status Offenders 24
How Common Is Status Offending? 25

The History of Status Offenses 27

The Status Offender in the Juvenile Justice
System 27

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Southwest Key Programs 29

CASE PROFILE: Akeema’s Story 30
Reforming Status Offense s 31

Are They Really Different? 32

Increasing Social Control over Youth 33

2 The Nature and Extent
of Delinquency 42

Official Records of Delinquency: The Uniform Crime
Report 44

Compiling the Uniform Crime Report 44

Is the UCR Valid? 45

The National Incident-Based Reporting
System (NIBRS) 46

Self-Report Surveys 47
Are Self-Reports Valid? 48

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 49

Trends in Crime and Delinquency 50
What the UCR Tells Us About Delinquency 50

Juvenile Arrest Trends 51

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Shaping Delinquency
Trends 52

Self-Reported Findings 52

Are the Data Sources Compatible? 55

What the Future Holds 55

Correlates of Delinquency 56
Time, Place, and Nature of Delinquency 56

Gender and Delinquency 56

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Co-offending and
Delinquency 57

CASE PROFILE: Naomi’s Story 58
Race and Delinquency 58

Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Delinquency 61

Age and Delinquency 61

part one
The Concept of Delinquency 1

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x Contents

Chronic Offending: Careers in
Delinquency 63

Delinquency in a Birth Cohort 64

What Causes Chronic Offending? 65

Policy Implications 65

Juvenile Victimization 66
Juvenile Victimization Trends 67

YOUTH STORIES: Room: Kids Held Captive 68

CYBER DELINQUENCY: Christopher Gunn 70
Teen Victims 70

part two
Theories of Delinquency 77

3 Individual Views
of Delinquency 78

Rational Choice Theory 80
The Rational Delinquent 81

Shaping Delinquent Choices 82

Routine Activities 84

Controlling Delinquency 85
General Deterrence 85

Specific Deterrence 89

Incapacitation 90

Situational Crime Prevention 90

Why Do Delinquents Choose Delinquency? 92

Trait Theories: Biological
and Psychological Views 93

Origins of Trait Theory 94

Contemporary Biosocial Theory 94
Vulnerability vs. Differential Susceptibility 95

Biochemical Factors 95

Neurological Dysfunction 98

CASE PROFILE: Timothy’s Story 102
Genetic Influences 104

The Association Between Inherited Traits
and Delinquency 106

Is There a Genetic Basis for Delinquency? 107

Evolutionary Theory 107

Psychological Theories of Delinquency 108
Psychodynamic Theory 108

Attachment Theory 110

Mental Disorders and Delinquency 110

YOUTH STORIES: Nehemiah Griego 113
Behavioral Theory 113

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: The Media and
Delinquency 114

Cognitive Theory 116

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—TREATMENT:
Therapeutic Approaches for Sexually Abused Children 118

Personality and Delinquency 119

Intelligence and Delinquency 120

Critiquing Individual-Level Theories 122

Trait Theory and Delinquency Prevention 123

4 Structure, Process, Culture, and
Delinquency 136

Social Factors and Delinquency 138
Social Structure and Delinquency 138

Child Poverty 139

Social Structure Theories 140
Social Disorganization Theory 141

The Legacy of Shaw and McKay 142

Social Ecology Theory 142

The Effect of Collective Efficacy 147

Strain Theory 147
Merton’s Theory of Anomie 148

Institutional Anomie Theory 150

General Strain Theory 150

Cultural Deviance Theories 152
Gang Culture 153

Lower-Class Values and Focal Concerns 153

Theory of Delinquent Subculture 154

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: The Code of the Streets 155
Theory of Differential Opportunity 156

Social Structure Theory and Public Policy 157

Social Process Theories 157
Elements of Socialization 158

The Effects of Socialization on Delinquency 159

YOUTH STORIES: Ethan Couch 160
Social Learning Theory 161

Differential Association Theory 161

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Contents xi

Neutralization Theory 163

Variations on Neutralization Theory 165

Social Control Theory 166
Self-Concept and Delinquency 166

Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory 167

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—PREVENTION:
Families and Schools Together (FAST) 169

CASE PROFILE: Steph’s Story 172

5 Social Reaction, Social Conflict,
and Delinquency 182

Social Reaction Theory 184
The Concept of Symbolic Interaction 184

Interpreting Deviance 184

Becoming Labeled 185

YOUTH STORIES: Was It Rape? 186
The Source of Labels 187

Differential Labeling 187

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: The Consequences of
Labeling 188

The Consequences of Labeling 188

Important Labeling Concepts 191

The Juvenile Justice Process and Labeling 193

Is Labeling Theory Valid? 194

Social Reaction Theory and Social Policy 195

Social Conflict Theory 195
and Justice 196

Globalization 196

Conflict Theory and Delinquency 197

CYBER DELINQUENCY: Recruiting Young Terrorists 199
The Economy and Delinquency in Contemporary
Society 200

The Concept of Restorative Justice 201

The Process of Restoration 202

CASE PROFILE: Jay’s Story 203
Restoration Programs 204

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Family Group Conferencing (FGC): The New Zealand
Model 206

6 Developmental Theories of
Delinquency: Life-Course,
Propensity, and Trajectory 214

The Creation of a Developmental View of
Delinquency 216
Life-Course Theory 218

Negative Life Events 218

Life-Course Concepts 219

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Persistence vs.
Desistance 221

Persistence and Desistance 221

Theories of the Delinquent Life Course 222
Age-Graded Theory 223

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Shared Beginnings, Divergent
Lives 227

Propensity Theories 228

YOUTH STORIES: Craig Price 229
State Dependence 229

Propensity and Opportunity 230

General Theory of Crime 230

Trajectory Theory 236
Late Bloomers and Nonstarters 236

Pathways to Delinquency 237

Adolescent-Limited and Life-Course Persistent
Offenders 238

Evaluating Developmental Theories 239
Public Policy Implications of Developmental
Theory 240

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—PREVENTION:
Across Ages 242

part three
Social, Community, and Environmental Influences on Delinquency 251

7 Gender and Delinquency 252
Gender Differences in Development 254

Socialization Differences 254

Cognitive Differences 254

Personality Differences 255

Emotional Differences 255

What Causes Gender Differences—Biology
or Socialization? 256

Gender Differences and Delinquency 258
Gender Patterns in Delinquency 258

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xii Contents

Trait Theory and Female Delinquency 260
Early Biological Explanations 260

Early Psychological Explanations 261

Contemporary Trait Views 261

Contemporary Psychological Views 264

Socialization Views 265
Socialization and Delinquency 265

Contemporary Socialization Views 266

CASE PROFILE: Kaitlin’s Story 267
Delinquency and Abuse 267

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Practical Academic Cultural Educational (PACE) Center 270

Developmental Views 270

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Keep Safe 271

Liberal Feminist Views 271
Support for Liberal Feminism 272

Critical Feminist Views 272
Patriarchy and Delinquency 273

Gender Conflict 273

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Trafficking in Children 274
Exploitation and Delinquency 277

Power-Control Theory 277

Gender and the Juvenile Justice System 278

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Abused Girls in the Juvenile
Justice System 279

8 The Family and Delinquency 286
The Changing American Family 287

Fragile Families 288

Child Care 289

Economic Stress 290

The Family’s Influence on Delinquency 291
Family Breakup 292

YOUTH STORIES: The Nevil Family Murders 295
Family Conflict 295

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Bad Parents or Bad
Kids? 296

Family Competence 296

Family Deviance 298

Child Abuse and Neglect 300
Historical Foundation 301

Defining Abuse and Neglect 302

The Effects of Abuse 302

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Trauma and Its Effects 303
The Extent of Child Abuse 304

The Nature of Abuse 304

Sexual Abuse 306

Causes of Child Abuse and Neglect 307

The Child Protection System:
Philosophy and Practice 308

Investigating and Reporting Abuse 309

CASE PROFILE: Patrick’s Story 310
The Process of State Intervention 310

Disposition and Review 312

Criminal Charges 313

Foster Care 313

Preventing Child Abuse 315

The Abused Child in Court 315

Abuse, Neglect, and Delinquency 317
Is There an Abuse–Delinquency Link? 318

The Family and Delinquency Control Policy 318

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Homebuilders 319

9 Peers and Delinquency: Juvenile
Gangs and Groups 328

Adolescent Peer Relations 330
Peer Relations and Delinquency 331

Impact of Peer Relations 332

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Birds of a Feather? 334
Youth Gangs 334

What Are Gangs? 334

How Did Gangs Develop? 336

Contemporary Gangs 338
Extent 338

Location 338

Migration 339

Collaboration 340

Globalization 340

Types 341

Cohesion 341

Age 342

Gender 343

Formation 345

Leadership 346

Communications 346

Ethnic and Racial Composition 348

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Contents xiii

CYBER DELINQUENCY: Gangs in Cyberspace 349

CASE PROFILE: Luis’s Story 353
Criminality and Violence 355

Why Do Youths Join Gangs? 358
The Anthropological View 358

The Social Disorganization/
Sociocultural View 359

The Anomie/Alienation View 360

The Family Tradition/Learning View 360

The Psychological View 360

The Rational Choice View 360

Leaving the Gang 362

YOUTH STORIES: Lisa’s Story 363
Controlling Gang Activity 364

Legal Controls 364

Enforcement Efforts 366

Community-Level Programs 367

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Newport News STEP Program 368

Evaluating Gang-Control Efforts 369

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Cure Violence 371

10 Schools and Delinquency 380
The School in Modern American Society 381

Socialization and Status 382

Educational Problems and Issues 382

Economic Disadvantage and Educational
Achievement 383

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Race and School
Discipline 385

Dropping Out 385

Academic Performance and Delinquency 388

CASE PROFILE: Marie’s Story 389
The Direction of School Failure
and Delinquency 389

Correlates of School Failure 390

Delinquency in the School 392
Extent of School Crime 392

Who Are the Victims of School Crime? 393

School Shootings 394

School Yard Bullying 396

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—PREVENTION:
Preventing School Yard Bullying 398

The Causes of School Crime 400

Reducing School Crime 401

PROFESSIONAL SPOTLIGHT: Kevin Quinn 403
The Role of the School in Delinquency
Prevention 404

School-Based Prevention Programs 404

Legal Rights in the School 405
The Right to Personal Privacy 405

Free Speech 408

School Prayer 409

CYBER DELINQUENCY: Free Speech in Cyberspace 410
School Discipline 411

11 Drug Use and Delinquency 418
Frequently Abused Drugs 419

Marijuana and Hashish 419

Cocaine 421

Heroin 421

Alcohol 421

Other Drug Categories 422

Trends in Teenage Drug Use 424
The Monitoring the Future (MTF) Survey 424

YOUTH STORIES: Hope Turner 425
The PRIDE Survey 426

The National Survey on Drug Use and
Health 427

Are the Survey Results Accurate? 427

Why Do Youths Take Drugs? 428
Social Disorganization 428

Peer Pressure 429

Family Factors 430

Genetic Factors 430

Emotional Problems 430

CASE PROFILE: Fernando’s Story 431
Problem Behavior Syndrome 431

Rational Choice 432

Pathways to Drug Abuse 432
Adolescents Who Distribute Small Amounts of
Drugs 432

Adolescents Who Frequently Sell Drugs 433

Teenage Drug Dealers Who Commit
Other Delinquent Acts 433

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Does Drug
Dealing Pay? 434

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xiv Contents

Losers and Burnouts 434

Persistent Offenders 435

Drug Use and Delinquency 435
Drugs and Chronic Offending 436

Explaining Drug Use and Delinquency 437

Drug Control Strategies 437
Enforcement Efforts 438

Education Strategies 440

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Drug Abuse Resistance
Education (D.A.R.E.) 441

Community Strategies 442

Treatment Strategies 442

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—TREATMENT:
Multisystemic Therapy 443

Harm Reduction 443

What Does the Future Hold? 444

12 Delinquency Prevention:
Social and Developmental
Perspectives 452

The Many Faces of Delinquency Prevention 454
Costs of Delinquency: A Justification for
Prevention 455

A Brief History of Delinquency Prevention 456

Classifying Delinquency Prevention 457

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—PREVENTION:
Head Start 458

Early Prevention of Delinquency 460

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Public Support for Delinquency
Prevention 461

Home-Based Programs 462

Improving Parenting Skills 463

Daycare Programs 465

Preschool 466

School Programs in the Primary Grades 467

Prevention of Delinquency
in the Teenage Years 470

Mentoring 470

YOUTH STORIES: Wes Moore 471
School Programs for Teens 472

After-School Programs 474

Job Training 476

Comprehensive Community-Based Programs 477

Future of Delinquency Prevention 478

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—PREVENTION:
Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development 479

part four
The Juvenile Justice System 487

13 Juvenile Justice: Then
and Now 488

Juvenile Justice in the Nineteenth Century 490
Urbanization 490

The Child Saving Movement 491

House of Refuge 491

Were They Really Child Savers? 493

Development of Juvenile Institutions 493

Children’s Aid Society 493

Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children 494

A Century of Juvenile Justice 495
The Illinois Juvenile Court Act and Its Legacy 495

Reforming the System 497

Juvenile Justice Today 499
The Juvenile Justice Process 501

PROFESSIONAL SPOTLIGHT: Carla Stalnaker 504
Conflicting Values in Juvenile Justice 504

Criminal Justice vs. Juvenile Justice 505

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Similarities and Differences
Between Juvenile and Adult Justice Systems 506

A Comprehensive Juvenile Justice Strategy 506
Prevention 507

Intervention 508

Graduated Sanctions 509

Institutional Programs 509

Alternative Courts 509

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Teen Courts 510

CASE PROFILE: Jennifer’s Story 512
Future of Juvenile Justice 512

YOUTH STORIES: Chrystal Carreras 513

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Contents xv

14 Police Work with Juveniles 520
History of Juvenile Policing 522
Community Policing in the New Millennium 523

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Juvenile Views About
Police 524

The Community Policing Model 524

The Police and Juvenile Offenders 525
Police Services 526

Police Roles 526

CYBER DELINQUENCY: Policing Juveniles in
Cyberspace 527

Police and Violent Juvenile Crime 528

YOUTH STORIES: Latin King Goonies 529
Police and the Rule of 530

The Arrest Procedure 530

Search and Seizure 531

Custodial Interrogation 532

Discretionary Justice 534
Environmental Factors 535

Police Policy 535

Situational Factors 536

Bias and Police Discretion 537

FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Juvenile Race, Gender, and
Ethnicity in Police Decision Making 539

Police Work and Delinquency Prevention 540
Aggressive Enforcement 540

Police in Schools 540

CASE PROFILE: Rico’s Story 541
Community-Based Policing Services 543

Problem-Oriented Policing 543

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Pulling Levers Policing 544

Future of Juvenile Policing 546

15 Juvenile Court Process: Pretrial,
Trial, and Sentencing 554

The Juvenile Court and Its Jurisdiction 556
Court Case Flow 556

The Actors in the Juvenile Courtroom 556

PROFESSIONAL SPOTLIGHT: Lamont Christian
Berecz 560

Juvenile Court Process 561
Release or Detain? 561

Bail for Children 564

The Intake Process 565

Diversion 566

The Petition 567

The Plea and Plea Bargaining 567

YOUTH STORIES: Hubert Morgan 568
Transfer to the Adult Court 569

Waiver Procedures 570

Due Process in Transfer Proceedings 570

EVIDENCE-BASED JUVENILE JUSTICE—INTERVENTION:
Transfers to Adult Court Found Ineffective in Reducing
Violence 572

Should Youths Be Transferred to Adult Court? 572

Juvenile Court Trial 575
Constitutional Rights at Trial 576

Disposition 576

Juvenile Sentencing Structures 578

CASE PROFILE: Cliff’s Story 580
The Death Penalty for Juveniles 581

Life Without Parole for Juveniles 582

The Child’s Right to Appeal 583

Confidentiality in Juvenile Proceedings 583

Future of the Juvenile Court 585

16 Juvenile Corrections:
Probation, Community Treatment,
and …